r^briA^V\  . 

VVCx-o'. 

INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 

JOHN     BAR  REIT  T.     DIRECTOR 
FRANCISCO  J.  YANES.  SECRETARY 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 

BUENOS  AIRES 
ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


(Reprint  of  an  article  from  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  November,  1908) 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING  OFFICE 

1909 


INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 

JOHN     BARRELTT.     D  I  R  El  C  T  O  R 
FRANCISCO  J.  ^ANES,  SECRETARY 


■^ 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 

BUENOS  AIRES 
ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


(Reprint  of  an  article  from  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  November,  1 908) 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING  OFFICE 

1909 


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University  of  California 
WITHDRAWN 

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BUEXOS  AIRES. 

THE  city  of  Buenos  Aires,  capital  of  the  Argentine  Republic, 
on  June  30,  1008,  had  1,140,865  inhabitants.     The  rate  of 
increase  has  been  close  to  5  per  cent  from  year  to  year,  and 
promises  to  rise  above  this  owing  to  circumstances  that  are 
naturally  and  artificially  adyantageous.     This  groAvth  of  the  city  is 
^i  high   as  compared  to  other  important  cities  of  both   Europe   and 
America,  surpassing  eyen  every   city  in  the  United   States  except 
Chicago.     The  reasons  for  this  increase  can  be  traced  to  three  causes. 
The  first  is  the  steady  stream  of  immigration  which  flows  from  other 
"^    countries  toward  the  River  Plate:  in  1007,  320, 122  individuals  landed 
^    at  the  port ;  of  these  200,103  were  immigrants  arriving  for  settlement 
,  within  the  country.     The  nationality  of  these  embryo  citizens  is  of 
great   interest ;   Italy   and   Spain   send   the  largest    proportion,   but 
Russia,  Syria,  France,  Austria,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and  Portu- 
^    gal  each  sends  over  1,000;  every  country  in  Europe  otfers  some  con- 
^    tribution,  all  divisions  of  Africa  and  many  of  the  Latin- American  re- 
^    publics  are  represented,  while  North  America,  China,  and  Japan  and 
^    Africa  help  to  swell  the  total.     Not  all  of  these  immigrants  become 
residents  of  Buenos  Aires,  some  going  fartlier  into  the  interior,  and 
Q    a  measurable  proportion  returning  to  their  oversea  homes  (of  course 
>^    this  does  not  imply  that  the  same  individuals  come  and  go,  but  immi- 
^    gration  usually  surpasses  emigration  by  certain  fairly  accurate  accu- 
^     rate  figures)  ;  the  result,  however,  is  that  upward  of  100.000  immigrants 
are  added  each  year  to  the  population.     The  second  cause  is  the  high 
birth  rate  enjoyed  by  Bunos  Aires:  for  several  years  this  has  been 
steadily  maintained  at  close  to  35  per  1.000.    This  is  twice  as  high  as 
that  of  Paris,  half  again  as  high  as  that  of  London,  higher  than  that 
of  New  York,  and  surpassed  by  the  birth  rate  of  Xuremburg  (Ger- 
many)  only.     The  third  cause  is  the  low  death  rate  of  the  city,  in 
which  respect  it  compares  very  favorably  with  all  the  cities  of  the 

821 


822  IXTERXATIOXAL   BUREAU    OF    THE   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

ciA-ilized  Avorkl,  being  louver  than  that  of  Paris  and  New  York,  and 
higher  than  that  of  London.  Edinburg.  Berlin,  and  Hamburg.  The 
results  in  the  reduction  of  the  death  rate  are  due  unmistakably  to  the 


HOTEL  METKOPOLE,  BUENOS  AIRES. 

One  of  the  many  splcnilid  hotels  of  Buenos  Aires,  situated  on  Avcnida  de  Mayo,  in  the  lieart  of  the 
business  seetion  of  the  Argentine  eapital. 

great  progress  made  by  the  nnuiicipality  of  Buenos  Aires  in  all  details 
of  ini))roving  the  hygiene  of  the  city. 


MUNICIPAL   ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICA.  823 

Buenos  Aires  is  both  a  municipality  and  the  capital  of  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  and  as  such  has  an  organization  as  a  city  as  well  as  an 
intimate  connection  with  the  Federal  Government.  The  latter  asso- 
ciation is  maintained  by  means  of  an  official  called  the  Intendente 
(Municipal),  who  i^  appointed  by  the  President  (Poder  Ejecutivo) 
of  the  Eepublic,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  National  Senate,  for 
a  term  of  four  years,  and  who  receives  a  salary.  He  performs  to  a 
great  degree  the  function  of  Mayor  in  any  (North)  American  city, 
and  is  to  a  large  extent  amenable  to  the  rules  of  the  deliberate  council. 
Through  him  municipal  matters  are  presented  to  the  National  Assem- 
bly whenever  necessary,  and  he  likewise,  as  representative  of  the 
nation,  is  empowered,  acting  thus  through  the  Minister  of  the  Inte- 
rior, to  present  to  the  municipality  whatever  business  has  originated 
in  Congress,  Other  manifestations  of  this  dual  character  of  the  city 
are  to  be  found  in  the  direction  of  the  police  and  fire  departments, 
which  are  under  the  control  of,  and  the  expenses  of  which  are  met 
by,  the  Federal  Government.  Certain  factors  of  the  educational 
system,  and  likewise  the  sanitary  regulations  of  the  city,  carried  out 
by  means  of  a  national  department  of  hygiene  and  a  municipal  de- 
partment of  public  service— the  Asistancia  Publica — are  partly  na- 
tional in  character.     These  institutions  will  be  examined  later. 

The  city,  municipality  itself,  is  divided  into  20  parishes  (Parro- 
quias),  corresponding  to  the  wards  of  a  (North)  American  city. 
From  these  parishes,  on  a  basis  of  population,  representatives  are 
chosen  by  ballot  of  the  citizens  to  form  a  body  called  the  Concejo 
Deliberante,  corresponding  in  most  details  to  our  Common  Council. 
These  officials  serve  without  pay  for  a  term  of  four  years,  one-half  of 
their  number  being  elected  every  two  years,  however.  This  so-called 
deliberative  body  chooses  from  among  its  members  a  President,  a 
First  and  Second  Vice-President.  These  officials  serve  as  provisional 
substitutes  for  the  Intendente  whenever  occasion  requires. 

The  great  departments  of  the  municipal  government  may  be  classi- 
fied as  follows :  Finance,  which  includes  the  functions  usually  under- 
stood in  such  a  department ;  Public  Works,  having  charge  of  munic- 
ipal buildings,  water  supply,  sewers,  streets,  paving,  repairing  and 
opening  of  streets  and  alloys,  administration  of  building  laws,  control 
of  public  markets,  bridges,  parks,  squares,  and  monuments;  Security 
and  Hygiene,  giving  particular  attention  to  buildings  like  theaters, 
where  public  meetings  are  held;  street  cleaning,  food  supplies,  regula- 
tion of  weights  and  measures,  certain  authority  over  hospitals  and 
asylums,  prevention  or  control  of  epidemics,  and  the  municipal  side 
of  the  public  relief  service.  Rules  for  the  preservation  of  public 
morality  are  enforced  through  this  department.  A  Law  Department 
is  also  maintained. 


824  INTERNATIONAL    BUREAU    OF    THE   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Buenos  Aires  is  located  geographically  at  34°  3G'  21"  south  lati- 
tude, and  58°  21'  33"  west  longitude  from  Greenwich.     It  is  prac- 


_  ^  Buenos 
.■merited  by 
is  noted  for 


i'wiJ*  K  l)hl'AKTMKNT,  JU  JCNu.S  AlKES,  AliGKNTlNK  KErrBLIC. 

This  handsome  building  is  the  central  station  of  the  32  police  precincts  into  which  the  city  of 
Aires  is  divided.  The  police  force,  consisting  of  about  4,000  ofticers  and  men.  is  suppleme 
a  mounted  sfiuiidron  oflOO  gendarmi's.  The  police  department  is  well  organized,  and  is  iv 
the  <iuickness  and  cfTcctiveness  of  its  service. 

tically  at  the  same  distance  from  (lie  eciuator  as  Los  Angeles,  Cali- 
fornia, and  is  blessed  Avith  a  simihir  i'limat(>.     The  city  measures  02^ 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICA. 


825 


kilometers  (40  miles)  in  circumference,  and  has  an  area  of  18,141 
hectares  (about  TO  square  miles),  equal  in  size,  therefore,  to  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  (which  in  this  respect  is  coextensive  with  the  District  of 
Columbia),  but  smaller  than  London,  Marseilles,  or  Manchester, 
Greater  Xew^  York,  New  Orleans.  Philadelphia,  and  Chicago,  and 
larger  than  Paris,  Berlin,  or  Vienna.  Ample  preparation  has  been 
made  for  future  growth,  because  the  open  spaces,  exclusive  of  an  ex- 
tensive park  system,  will  permit  a  much  greater  population  than  lives 
at  present  within  its  confines.  In  the  cit}"  ten  years  ago  there  w^ere 
55.000  houses;  64,000  building  permits  were  issued  since  then  to  1906; 


CHAPEL,  CHACHARITA  CEMETERY,  BUENOS  AIRES,  ARGENTIXE  REtUBLIC. 

This  cemetery,  consisting  of  182  acres  of  land,  is  five  miles  from  the  center  of  the  city  of  Buenos 
Aires,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  tramway.  It  was  opencil  for  public  u^e  in  1807.  In  addition 
to  a  fine  chapel,  the  cemetery  has  an  excellently  equipped  crematory,  and  tlie  location  and  topog- 
raphy of  the  land  make  it  one  of  the  great  burying  grounds  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 

and  in  1907  there  Avere  14,489  building  permits  issued,  which  is  the 
highest  figure  reached  in  the  citj^'s  history. 

The  city  is  laid  out  on  the  rectangular  plan,  each  square  measuring 
130  meters  (almost  -J 00  feet)  on  a  side.  The  rectangular  pattern  is 
more  evident  away  from  the  older  portion  of  the  city,  where,  despite 
the  radical  improA'ements  within  the  past  generation,  some  irregu- 
larity was  unavoidabh'  left.  Ever}^  corner  of  street  intersections  is 
marked  in  clear  letters  b}-  the  name  of  the  street,  easily  readable  by 
the  foot  passenger ;  street  numbering  is  on  the  century  system.  At  the 
end  of  1907,  7,000,000  square  yards  of  pavement  had  been  laid,  the  most 


826         INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU   OF   THE   AMERICAN   REPUBLICS. 

generally  used  being  granite  blocks  with  mortar  foundation,  then 
granite  blocks  with  sand  foundation,  stone,  wooden  blocks,  macadam, 
and  asphalt. 

The  number  of  individual  streets  passes  the  300  mark,  but  some 
of  the  longest  have  separate  names  for  separate  sections.  If  extended 
in  a  straight  line  they  would  measure  about  GOO  miles.  Many  of 
them  are  fine,  broad  avenues  100  feet  or  more  in  width,  only  a  few 
of  the  narrow  passages  of  the  earlier  city  being  left  after  the  recon- 
struction of  the  city  from  1889  onward,  and  the  law  in  force  to-day 
is  that  no  street  opened  in  the  future  can  be  less  than  17.32  meters 
(almost  CO  feet)  in  width.  In  this  connection  it  is  worth  mentioning 
that  the  municipal  authorities  have  a  commission  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  architecture  in  the  city,  and  a  prize — a  gold  medal  together 
Avith  a  diploma — is  offered  yearly  for  the  most  attractively  designed 
structure  erected.  In  addition  to  this  reward  for  the  architect,  the 
owner  of  the  building  is  excused  from  payment  of  the  taxes  that 
would  legally  be  imposed  uj^on  the  premises.  The  building  line,  that 
is,  the  height  of  the  structure  relative  to  the  width  of  the  street,  is 
carefully  established  and  the  law  regarding  it  rigidly  enforced.  For- 
tunately neither  the  habit  or  the  taste  of  the  inhabitants  encourages 
high  buildings;  the  area  of  the  city  is  so  great  that  no  special  demand 
need  arise  for  a  central  but  congested  "  business  portion,"  and  there- 
fore violation  of  the  law  would  be  not  only  a  crime  but  an  unpardon- 
able offense  against  the  artistic  sense  Avhich  is  so  characteristic  of 
the  Latin  race.  There  is  also  a  law  regulating  street  advertising, 
and  display  signs  are  supposed  to  be  kept  within  reasonable  bounds, 
but  it  can  not  be  said  that  in  this  respect  the  artistic  temperament 
is  so  completely  satisfied.  The  monstrosities  of  a  Broadway  do  not, 
to  be  sure,  repel  the  traveler,  but  even  in  Latin-America  the  tempta- 
tion seems  to  be  irresistible  to  occu])y  an  empty  space  by  a  multi- 
colored signboard. 

The  municipal  revenue  is  derived  from  many  of  the  same  sources 
that  furnish  funds  to  all  cities,  and  is  divided  into  five  classes: 
(1)  Revenue  other  than  by  taxation;  this  includes  charges  for  pav- 
ing and  draining,  chemical  analyses,  admission  to  Zoological  Gardens 
(in  Buenos  xVires  this  garden,  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  is  mu- 
nicipall}^  owned  and  managed),  advertising  (signifying  permits  to 
do  so),  and  other  similar  payments;  (2)  charges  on  private  property 
and  municipal  enterprises,  such  as  slaughterhouses,  markets,  cemeteries, 
crematories  (for  refuse),  property  leases,  and  the  National  Lottery; 
(3)  direct  taxes,  including  nuuiicipal  licenses;  (4)  indirect  taxes,  such 
as  those  on  buildings  and  hind,  inspection  fees,  control  of  weights 
and  measures,  and  i)ayments  on  admission  to  race  courses;  and  (5)  cas- 
ual receipts  of  a  miscellaneous  character. 


MUNICIPAL   ORGANIZATION    IN   LATIN-AMERICA. 


827 


Among  the  sources  of  revenue  included  under  the  tax  lists  are 
imposts  upon  street  cars,  carriages,  dogs,  theaters,  billiard  halls,  tele- 
graph and  telephone  messages,  the  use  of  spaces  beneath  city  streets. 


THE  GENERAL  BELGRANO  MAUSOLEUM,  BUENOS  AIRES. 

This  mausoleum  cntains  the  a.slius  cf  the  illustrhms  Argentine  peiieral  and  patriot,  Manuel  Belijrano 
who  took  a  prominent  j.art  in  in,iu,t,Miratin,i,'  tlie  revdhition  of  May25,  IslO  in  Buenos  Aires  and 
whose  celebrated  victories  over  tlie  Spaniards  at  Tueunutn,  in  1812,  and  Salta,  in  1S13,  showed  him 
to  be  oue  ot  tlic  ablest  and  bravest  generals  of  the  Republic.  <       '■o  o,  .uo»  eu  luiu 

on  provisions  and  wagons  conveying  them  about  the  city,  peddlers, 
hotels  and  such  public  houses,  cellars,  etc.     Such  a  special  taxation 


828 


INTERNATIONAL    BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


as  cities  in  the  United  States  impose  upon  what  are  here  called  sa- 
loons, the  intent  of  which  is  often  quite  as  much  for  the  purpose  of 
prohibition  as  it  is  to  raise  revenue,  is  not  applied  in  Buenos  Aires, 
because  the  people  are,  in  the  main,  temperate,  and  the  business  of 
dispensing  beer,  wine,  or  stronger  alcoholic  drink  is  not  so  specialized 


MKIHAUU  DK  I'lLAK,  BUKXOS  AIKKS,  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

One  of  the  numerous  markets  of  the  eity  of  Buenos  Aires.  The  stalls  and  stands  are  required  to  be 
kept  scrupulously  clean,  and  strict  hygienic  regulations  must  be  observed  in  the  sale  of  fruits, 
vegetables,  meats,  and  other  simihir  products. 

there.  A  late  report  gives  the  number  of  cafes  at  about  400.  of  which 
40  are  at  the  same  time  restaurants,  but  of  course  this  does  not  in- 
clude the  scores  of  small  booths,  or  what  are  called  delicatessen  shops 
in  Germany  and  tlie  United  States,  where  drinks  of  one  kind  and 


MUNICIPAL   ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICA. 


829 


another  are  sold  alongside  of  foods,  preserves,  and  the  less  snbstan- 
tial  provisions  for  domestic  consumption.  Many  shops  sell  drink- 
ables, but  saloons  or  barrooms  are  to  be  found  only  in  the  congested 
center  of  the  city,  ^Yhere  foreign  habits  have  popularized  themselves 
in  a  cosmopolitan  sense.  If  it  can  be  said  to  the  credit  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Buenos  Aires  that  they  are  not  dangerously  great  drinkers 
of  alcohol,  it  can  be  asserted,  with  equal  commendation  of  their  habits 
and  of  the  watchfulness  of  the  municipal  administration,  that  they 
are  remarkably  fond  of  milk  drinks  and  foods.  There  were  at  the 
last  inspection  2T5  tamhos  (a  milk  shop  with  cows  kept  on  the  prem- 
ises)   and    innumerable    Icchcrias    (inspected    shops   where   milk    is 


Ml'XICIPAL  SLAUGHTERHOUSES,  LINARES,  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

The  municipal  slaughterhouses,  which  furnish  Buenos  Aires  witli  an  excellent  supply  of  fresh  meats, 
are  located  at  Linares,  a  suburb  within  the  limitsof  the  cdrporation,  alidiu  eight  miles  distant  from 
the  center  of  the  city.  These  well-equipped  establishments  are  models  of  neatness  and  order,  and 
a  source  of  revenue  to  the  municipal  government. 

sold)  ;  in  them  pasteurized  milk  and  cream  is  obtainable  at  a  very 
moderate  price  a  glass,  and  the  cleanliness  of  the  shops,  the  neatness 
of  the  fittings,  and  the  attractiveness  of  the  attendants  go  a  long  way 
to  encourage  the  desire  for  milk  and  to  neutralize  the  Anglo-Saxon 
custom  of  asking  for  malt  or  stronger  alcoholic  drinks.  As  one 
official  puts  it,  ''  frozen  milk  (the  equivalent  of  ice-cream)  is  the 
national  drink  during  the  dog  days."  The  daih"  supi^ly  of  milk  for 
the  city  is  close  to  400,000  quarts,  93  per  cent  of  which  is  brought 
from  dairy  farms  close  to  the  outskirts.  All  the  cows  are  carefully 
inspected,  and  control  is  exercised  over  this  food  until  it  reaches  the 
consmner. 


830 


INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF   THE   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


The  expenses  for  1907  of  the  municipality  of  Buenos  Aires  amounted 
to  $20,751,300  national  currency  ($1  national  currency,  written  also 
m/n,  =  $0.15  gold).  Of  this,  $2,552,000  is  paid  out  as  interest  upon 
the  city's  public  debt,  and  this  amount  equals  12.32  per  cent  of  the 
total  expenses  of  the  municipality.  The  revenues  for  the  same 
period  amounted  to  $21,239,108,  a  surplus  being  left  therefore.  For 
1908  the  budget  was  given  out  as  $27,220,644  national  currency.  Of 
this  sum  a  goodly  share  goes  toward  paj'ment  of  salaries  of  7,110 
emplo^'ees  on  the  citj^'s  pay  roll,  and  the  remainder  is  expended  on 
new  market  buildings,  $500,000;    new  avenues  and  streets,  $700,000; 


PRESIDENT  MITRE  SCHuuL,  hi  hNi.r,  AlKES,  AKLiKNilNK  KhiH  Bi.i<  . 

This  commodious  and  well-equipped  edifice  was  specially  constructed  by  the  Federal  Government 
for  use  of  the  primary  and  grammar  grades.  The  public  school  system  of  Buenos  Aires  is  under 
the  control  of  a  school  board,  and  primary  instruction  is  obligatory. 

the  Colon  Theater,  $890,000 ;  improvements  on  the  Liniers  Abattoir. 
$540,000;  acquiring  works  of  art  and  for  joropagating  national  art 
and  literature,  $50,000,  and  for  a  new  charity  institution,  $537,805, 
with  other  approi:)riations  of  a  smaller  nature.  (All  these  sums  are 
in  national  currency.)  The  ordinary  expenses  of  the  budget  refer 
to  the  usual  institutions  maintained  by  a  modern  city.  The  police 
and  fire  departments,  however,  are  supported  and  their  organization 
controlled  by  the  National  (lovernment.  Although  the  municipality 
has  certain  jurisdiction  over  both  in  so  far  as  they  are  necessarily 
subject  to  the  regulations  of  the  city  and  must  be  used  to  enforce 


fill 
^  ^'^  5' 

"^  ,^  o 

«!?'  2. 

2  a-^  _ 


P=  C   P  J., 


*  — i     "^ 


S  3  Oi 

Eo5 


0,52'  — 


832  INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

certain  ordinances  and  functions  of  the  municipalit}',  yet  the  respon- 
sibility for  their  i^avment  and  for  their  conduct  falls  upon  the  nation. 
The  Police  Department  consists  of  something-  over  4,000  members, 
at  the  last  official  statement  the  proportion  to  population  being  1  to 
260.  Of  this  number,  at  least  100  are  mounted  policemen.  For 
police  i^urposes  the  city  is  divided  into  32  districts,  with  a  station  in 
each  and  a  central  office  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  The  cost  to  the 
Government  of  this  service  is  upward  of  $0,000,000  national  currency. 
The  Fire  Department  has  1,200  members  and  IG  stations  in  separate 


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CANDY  AND  BISCUIT  FACTORY,  BUENOS  AIRES,  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

The  great  industrial  city  of  Bnonos  Aires  is  fast  becoming  a  noted  niannfactnrins:  center,  and  espe- 
cially is  this  true  of  fond  products.  Situated  in  close  proximity  to  the  sources  of  supply  of  the  raw 
material,  and  under  tlie  btucliccnt  stimulus  of  a  wise  policy  of  povcniment  eucourakement  and 

Erotcction,  manufacturiui;  I'stablishmeuls  are  increasing  at  a  rapid  rate,  and  many  articles  which 
ave  liithcrto  been  imported  in  considerable  quantities  are  now  manufactured  to'such  an  extent 
as  to  meet  the  demands  of  local  consumption,  while  in  some  instances  there  is  a  surplus  for  export 
to  the  neighboring  republics. 

divisions  of  the  city,  and  is  considered  an  efficient  brigade  in  every 
respect.  In  1907  the  fire  losses  amounted  to  $5,803,075  (national  cur- 
rency), with  172  alarms.  Both  these  departments  have  the  distin- 
guishing feature  of  being  part  of  the  military  system  of  the  country. 
Officially  they  are  enrolled  under  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  but 
in  times  of  disturbance  they  are  subject  to  orders  of  a  militaiy  char- 
acter, and  tlie  discipline  maintained  is  much  more  military  than  civil. 
Sanitation  in  Buenos  Aires  is  controlled  by  both  the  national  and 
the  miinicii)al   authorities.     The  former  is  called  the  National  De- 


MUNICIPAL   ORGANIZATIOX    IN    LATIN-AMERICA. 


833 


partment  of  Hygiene:  the  latter.  Assistencia  Publica,  or  Public  Aid 
Service.  The  national  body  controls  those  conditions  that  more 
directly  affect  the  whole  country  through  the  gateway  of  the  city. 
It  may  be  compared  to  the  Marine-Hospital  Service  in  the  United 
States,  or  rather  to  what  that  service  will  be  when  harmonized  with 
local  boards  of  health.  It  watches  over  sanitary  matters  at  the  port, 
regulates  vaccination,  inspects  drug  stores,  calls  the  attention  of  the 
municipality  to  unhygienic  conditions  it  may  detect  in  the  city,  sup- 
ports the  city  authorities  in  cases  of  epidemics,  and  has  certain  offices 
to  perform  in  all  duties  relating  to  hospitals  or  other  charitable  in- 


THE  PWILION  FOR  ZEBUS  AT  THE  ZOOLOGICAL  GARDEXS,  BUENOS  AIRES,  ARGENTINE 

REPUBLIC. 

The  Zoological  Gardens  are  situated  in  the  large  and  beautiful  Palmero  Park,  which  cornprises  an 
area  ol  about  1,000  acres.  The  grounds  are  artistically  laid  out,  and  there  are  a  number  of  artihcial 
lakes  as  well  as  attractive  walks  lined  with  shrubbery  and  trees.  The  principal  species  of  an;auals 
are  housed  in  separate  buildings.  These  gardens  become  popular  resorts  on  Sundays  and  holidays, 
at  which  time  thousands  of  people  visit  them  to  inspect  and  admire  the  large  collection  of  animals. 

stitutions.  The  Public  Aid  Service  has  a  more  intimate  function: 
it  has  charge  of  institutions  of  public  aid ;  in  its  care  is  the  municipal 
laboratory,  the  bacteriologic  examinations,  the  machinery  for  dis- 
infection, and,  perhaps  as  important  a  service  as  any,  it  has  active 
control  of  the  relief  ambulances  that  are  ready  for  all  emergencies 
and  offer  remarkably  efficacious  assistance  in  accidents  of  all  kinds. 
The  water  supply  and  sewer  system  of  the  city  are  virtually  de- 
partments of  the  National  Government,  and  the  cost  of  maintenance 
is  paid  out  of  the  National  Treasury,  but  it  must  be  noted  that  no  city 
in  the  world  has  a  superior  service,  and  that,  while  the  mortality 


834 


INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


rate  on  account  of  this  service  has  demonstrably  declined  to  one  of 
the  lowest  among  cities  of  this  class,  provision  is  also  made  for  meet- 
ing future  growth.  Water  is  taken  from  the  River  Plate  far  enough 
up  to  avoid  any  chance  of  pollution.  The  supply  comes  from  wells 
driven  beneath  the  surface  of  the  river,  and  is  pumped  through  tun- 
nels to  a  central  station  in  the  city.  Here  the  Avater  is  sedimented 
and  filtered,  and  is  then  distributed  to  all  portions  of  the  city.  The 
average  daily  water  supply  for  1907  was  12G  liters  (32  gallons)  per 
inhabitant,  but  parts  of  the  municipality  are  not  yet  reached  by  the 
system,  although  every  effort  is  made  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid 


NEW  MODEL  MARKET,  BUENOS  AIRES,  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

The  New  ISfcKlel  Market  of  Bueiuis  Aires  is  iiniler  munieipal  control.  The  arraiig:oment  is  good  and 
the  location  convenient.  The  greatest  neatness  and  cleanliness  are  ob.served  in  the  salenf  food 
prodncts,  and  the  organization  and  management  of  the  market  i.s  a  credit  to  the  municipal  govern- 
ment of  the  city. 

building  going  on.  The  sewerage  system  can  be  described  in  general 
terms  as  that  of  discharge  into  the  liiver  Plato  below  the  city,  so  that 
it  is  finally  carried  out  to  sea  without  contaminating  surrounding 
intakes.  It  is  elaborately  devised,  is  modern  in  every  way,  and,  as 
gravity  is  not  suflicient  to  can\y  oil'  the  sewage,  a  carefully  adjusted 
plan  of  pumps  and  relief  sewers  answers  every  requirement. 

The  docks  and  harbors  of  the  city  were  built  by  and  are  under  the 
management  of  the  National  (Jovernment.  They  are  divided  into 
two  sections,  one  along  the  Kiachuclo  fonuiiig  the  soutliern  boundarv 
of  the  city;  the  other,  composed  of  the  north  and  south  docks  or 
basins,  lying  in  front  of  the  city  to  the  east  on  the  River  Plate. 


MUNICIPAL   ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICA.  835 

The  public  lighting  of  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires  is  eli'ected  in  four 
ways,  by  kerosene,  alcohol,  gas,  and  electricity.  There  are  still  5,540 
oil  lamps  in  use  and  1,163  alcohol  lamps.  Of  gas  lamps  there  are 
24,767  (9,358  of  which  are  incandescent).  Electricity  is  supplied  to 
2,375  lamps  of  different  watts  power.  There  are  3  private  gas  com- 
panies with  87.203  subscribers,  and  rather  high  rates  for  the  supply. 
There  is  onl}^  one  electric  company,  a  private  organization,  which  fur- 
nishes current  for  both  illumination  and  power.  The  municipality 
lights  the  new  slaughterhouses  and  the  outlying  city  divisions  of 
Palermo,  Flores,  and  Belgrano. 

The  public-school  system  is  partly  national,  partly  municii^al,  al- 
though it  is  all  under  the  authority  of  the  National  Government. 
There  are  primary,  secondary,  commercial,  industrial,  and  higher 
grades.  The  first  is  gratuitous  and  compulsory  for  children  from  6 
to  14  years,  and  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Xational  Council  of 
Education,  which  is  supported  by  funds  from  both  the  Xational  Treas- 
ury and  certain  municipal  taxes.  In  Buenos  Aires  there  are  88,951 
public-school  children  in  attendance  in  the  primary  grade,  2,505  in 
the  secondary  grade,  1,256  in  the  Commercial  High  School  for  Boys, 
and  246  in  the  same  school  for  girls.  Other  schools  of  a  public  char- 
acter advance  the  pupil  in  commercial  or  technical  and  industrial 
education,  and  finally  the  candidate  for  a  degree  may  choose  a  course 
in  the  National  University  in  Buenos  Aires.  This  latter  is  not  co- 
educational. There  are  also  fine  arts  schools  and  special  institutions 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  for  the  blind. 

Buenos  Aires  has  only  two  public  libraries,  the  National,  supported 
by  public  funds;  the  other,  called  the  Municipal  Library,  but  sup- 
ported by  a  private  society.  They  are  not  developed  to  the  degree  of 
the  many  public  institutions  of  the  city. 

There  are  16  named  theaters,  besides  several  circuses  and  numerous 
cinematograph  exhibitions.  The  Opera,  but  which  will  hereafter 
be  in  the  new  Colon  Theater,  is  municipally  owned  and  managed, 
and  a  source  of  great  pride  to  the  city,  although  not  commercially  a 
paying  investment.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  taxpayers  do  not  grumble 
over  the  cost,  so  long  as  they  are  sure  that  during  the  year  they  can 
see  and  hear  the  best  art  the  world  offers.  The  attendance  at  all 
theaters  during  the  last  year  was  4,897,450,  paying  for  their  amuse- 
ment $6,481,645  national  currency.  That  the  inhabitants  love  enter- 
tainment out  of  doors  as  well  as  in,  shows  itself  in  the  attendance  at 
the  Zoological  Garden,  which  was  1,033.000,  exclusive  of  school 
children  (47,000),  soldiers,  sailors,  and  infants.  This  garden  belongs 
to  the  municipality,  together  with  the  entire  park  system  within  the 
city  limits  of  nearly  10,000,000  (4  square  miles)  square  meters,  which 
includes   boulevards,    squares,    open    spaces,    and    hospital   gardens. 

59477— Bull.  5,  pt  1— OS— — i 


836 


INTERNATIONAL    BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


There  are  9  public  parks,  the  largest  of  which,  3  de  Febrero,  covers 
one-half  the  entire  area,  14  boulevards  and  gardens,  35  squares,  10 
open  spaces,  9  hospital  gardens,  and  8  additions  in  construction. 
When  it  is  considered  that  the  prevailing  stjde  of  house  construction 
is  one-storied  and  that  the  city  has  planted  and  cares  for  150,856 
trees  outside  all  these  parks,  it  will  be  seen  that  ample  breathing 
space  is  j^rovided  b}'  the  municipality. 

Buenos  Aires  controls  31  municipal  markets,  supervises  18  hos- 
pitals, maintains  3  public  baths,  a  loan  and  savings  bank,  a  public 
•slaughterhouse,  night  refuges,  a  crematory,  and  a  cemetery.  There 
is  a  penitentiar3\  which  is  national,  and  a  city  house  of  correction 
for  males,  with  a  second  for  females. 

Local  traction  is  altogether  in  the  hands  of  j^rivate  initiative  and 
operation.  There  are  14  traction  companies,  5  being  with  horse 
power  and  9  with  electric  power,  with  a  total  length  of  550  kilometers 
(345  miles)  over  which  the  zone  system  of  payment  is  maintained. 
They  carried  225,000,000  passengers  in  1907,  an  increase  of  49,000,000 
passengers  in  two  years;  6,342  carriages,  1,327  automobiles,  77  motor 
cycles,  and  20,379  carts  add  to  the  means  of  locomotion.  The  streets 
were  the  scene  of  3,199  collisions  and  1,074  other  accidents. 

The  municipality  publishes  a  ]Montlily  Bulletin  and  a  Year-Book, 
both  full  of  statistical  and  general  information. 


INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 

JOHN     BARB.E,TT,     DIRECTOR 

FRANCISCO  J.  YANES.  SECRETARY 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 


RIO  DE  JANEIRO,  BRAZIL 


(Reprint  of  an  article  from  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  January,  1 909) 


WASHINGTON.  D.  C. 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1909 


INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 

JOHN     BARREITT.     D  I  R  EL  C  T  O  R 
FRANCISCO  J.  YANES,  SECRETARY 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 


RIO  DE  JANEIRO,  BRAZIL 


(Reprint  of  an  article  from  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  January,  1  909) 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1909 


;..,"'  *  *•  **  *  ^ 


M.  M..  .l&»^y 


RIO  DE  JANEIRO. 

IX  natural  beaiit}^  few  cities  of  the  world  can  compare  favorabh' 
with  Rio.  It  is  Naples  and  Stamboul,  as  seen  from  the  sea,  with 
hundreds  of  the  choicest  bits  of  the  ]Morea  and  the  islands  of  the 
.Egean  and  the  grandeur  of  the  Norwegian  fjords  rolled  into 

one. 

Fifteen  j^ears  ago  it  might  have  been  said  with  truth  that  in  this 
nature's  chef  d'ceuvre  the  handiwork  of  man  appeared  to  no  great 
advantage.  Rio.  in  area  one  of  the  largest  cities  of  the  world,  was 
a  more  or  less  disjointed  group  of  small  villages  thrust  in  here  and 
there  between  the  mountains  on  the  west  of  the  great  bay.  It  ap- 
peared broken  and  disconnected,  a  congeries  of  settlements,  stretching 
around  the  sweep  of  the  more  or  less  inaccessible  shore,  with  incur- 
sions here  and  there  between  the  hills  or  up  their  slopes.  On  a  nearer 
view  the  impression  was  more  favorable.  There  were  even  then  many 
beautiful  buildings  and  parks.  There  were  even  places  where  one 
might  say :  "  Here  man  has  wrought  worthy  of  his  surroundings." 
But  as  a  whole  the  city  was  disappointing.  Perhaps  most  of  all  be- 
cause it  lacked  unity  and  because  nature  pressed  too  heavily  upon  the 
observer  and  demanded  too  much. 

All  of  this  is  changing,  and  most  of  it  is  already  changed.  Fifteen 
years  has  worked  a  marvel  in  the  city,  as  great  as  a  tale  from  the 
"  Thousand  and  One  Nights."  Eio  de  Janeiro  has  been  made  over. 
It  has  been  joined  together.  It  is  unrecognizable,  but  it  is  becoming 
beautiful.  No  such  work  in  a  city  has  ever  been  done  before,  except 
perhaps  when  Ilaussmann  cleft  Paris  through  and  through  into  a 
half  dozen  great  avenues,  or  when  Peter  built  his  capital  on  the  Neva. 

Many  projects  for  the  rebuilding  or  improvement  of  Brazil's  capital 
were  conceived  prior  to  1803,  but  the  plan  which  finally  took  shape 
followed  the  installation  of  President  Koduhues  Alves  in  1892.  He 
appointed  as  secretary  of  public  works  Senator  Lauro  Mijller,  an 
engineer,  and  earnest  advocate  of  the  rebuilding  plan.  It  was  de- 
cided to  begin  the  work,  and  for  this  purpose  two  loans  were  contracted, 
one  a  foreign  loan  of  $40,000,000.  the  other  a  domestic  loan  by  the 
municipality  of  $20,000,000.  With  these  funds  the  work  was  begun  in 
virtue  of  the  decree  of  September  18,  1903. 
30 


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32 


INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


In  brief  the  plan  was: 

First,  the  construction  of  a  quay  following  in  general  the  shore 
line  3,500  meters  long  (2^  miles)  : 

Second,  the  construction  of  a  large  avenue  parallel  with  the  quay 
and  of  the  same  length  : 

Third,  the  rectification  and  prolongation  to  the  sea  of  the  canal 
known  as  ^Slangue,  with  an  avenue  on  either  side  nearh'  2  miles  (8,000 
meters)  in  length  and  131  feet  in  breadth,  lit  by  electricity; 

Fourth,  elevation  of  the  railroad  bed  and  construction  of  an  avenue 
following  the  line  of  Francisco  Eugenio  street  up  to  the  Quinta  do 
Boa  Vista,  the  residence  of  the  late  Emperor  Dom  Pedro  ; 

Fifth,  enlargement  of  the  city  water  supplj^  taking  in  all  the  near- 
by sources: 


THE  WATER  FRONT,  RIO  DE  JANEUto. 

Showinfr  a  portion  of  the  Avenida  Beira-Mar,  a  6-niile  boiilevarrt  skirting:  the  bay.  It  is  not  an 
exagKeration  to  sav  tliat  this  avenue  is  unsurpassefl  in  picturesque  beauty  and  variety  by  any 
driveway  of  equal"  length  in  the  world.  On  the  occasion  of  the  visit  of  ex-President  General 
Julio  Rocii,  of  Argentina,  in  1907,  it  was  gorgeously  illuminated  throughout  its  entire  length, 
as  a  feature  in  the  scheme  of  entertainment  in  lionor  of  that  distinguished  guest. 

Sixth,  revision  of  sewerage  system : 

Seventh,  construction  of  an  avenue,  1^  miles  (1,000  meters)  in 
length  and  108  feet  (33  meters)  broad.     This  is  the  Avenida  Central: 

Eighth,  cutting  down  certain  hills  in  the  city: 

Xinth,  widening  the  streets  crossing  the  Avenida  Central. 

These  j^lans  were  almost  immediately  enlarged  through  the  sug- 
gestion of  the  incoming  mayor  of  the  city,  Dr.  Francisco  Passos,  who 
was  selected  by  President  Kodrkjies  Alves  as  an  aid  to  Doctor 
MuLLER.  The  new  improvements  contemplated  the  widening  of 
many  other  streets,  the  construction  of  a  bay-side  drive,  4*  miles  long 
and  115  feet  wide  (T.OOO  meters  and  35  meters),  repaving  the  streets 
with  asphalt,  and  other  works  for  embellishing  the  city. 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN     CAPITALS.       33 

The  improvement  of  the  shore  line  was  a  work  of  the  greatest  mag- 
nitude. It  involved  the  building  of  a  stone  qua}^  over  2  miles  in 
length  along  the  east  front  of  the  city.  The  quay  is  built  in  many 
places  at  a  considerable  distance  out  from  the  old  shore  and  incloses 
several  islands  and  small  bays.  In  front  the  harbor  is  dredged  to  a. 
depth  of  10  meters  (32.8  feet)  to  a  distance  out,  and  following  the 
line  of  the  quay  for  250  meters  (820  feet).  This  forms  a  broad  ship 
channel  along  the  face  of  the  quay.  Back  from  the  quay  the  land  has 
been  filled  in  to  a  depth  of  from  12  to  40  feet  and  an  avenue  100  meters 
in  width  (328  feet)  has  been  constructed  following  the  line  of  the  new 
shore. 

This  avenue  is  apportioned  in  three  strips — a  paved  thoroughfare  of 
40  meters  (131  feet)  lined  with  rows  of  trees,  then  a  strip  of  35  meters 
for  business  houses  and  offices,  then  25  meters  for  railway  tracks. 
The  whole  quay  is  finished  w^ith  the  most  modern  hoisting,  loading 
and  unloading  machinery  and  devices,  and  there  are  two  electric  plants 
for  furnishing  power  and  light. 

Under  the  contract  of  September,  1903,  the  quay  work  which  was 
begun  in  March,  1904,  must  be  completed  by  July  1,  1910. 

More  striking  perhaps  than  even  the  quay  works  has  been  the  con- 
struction of  the  great  Avenida  Central,  running  in  a  straight  line 
from  sea  to  sea  and  serving  as  the  principal  outlet  from  the  congested 
business  section.  The  avenue  is  1,996  meters  long  (6,500  feet)  and  33 
meters  wide  (108  feet).  Over  600  buildings  were  demolished  in  pre- 
paring the  way,  3,000  laborers  working  night  and  day.  Trees  are 
planted  along  each  side  and  in  the  center.  There  are  also  flower  beds 
in  the  center. 

Some  of  the  most  beautiful  and  imposing  buildings  in  Rio  have 
been  erected  on  the  Avenida  Central. 

Another  great  avenue  opened  is  the  Avenida  Beira  Mar,  the  bay- 
side  avenue.  This  is  nearly  4-|-  miles  in  length  (7,000  meters).  It 
begins  where  the  western  end  of  the  Avenida  Central  meets  the 
bay  and,  following  the  curves  of  the  city  front,  stretches  away  to 
Botafogo  Bay,  a  beautiful  cove  inclosed  in  a  green  frame  of  high 
hills.  The  work  on  the  Mangue  Canal  and  the  building  of  the  two 
bordering  avenues,  each  131  feet  wide,  is  progressing  rapidly.  AMien 
completed  the  canal  will  be  nearly  2  miles  in  length,  stone  faced,  and 
crossed  by  numerous  artistic  bridges. 

A  marked  feature  in  the  building  of  the  new  streets  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro  has  been  the  use  of  the  rounded  corner,  the  building  line 
being  marked  on  a  curve  of  considerable  radius.  This  adds  a 
beauty  and  dignity  to  the  architecture  of  the  buildings  and  a  grace 
to  the  appearance  of  the  streets,  in  particular  as  seen  on  the  Avenida 
Central,  that  is  lacking  in  the  cities  of  the  United  States. 


34 


IXTERNATIONAL    BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS, 


In  addition  to  the  new  avenues  a  nunil)er  of  streets  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro  have  been  improved  so  as  to  be  ahnost  unrecognizable  to  one 


AVENIDA  CENTRAL— lil^LDING  UK  THE  JUKNAL  DO  I'U.MMEKClU,  KiO  1»E  JANEIRO. 

Manv  large  and  handsome  office  buildhiKS  are  eloquent  in  attesting  the  general  business  pros- 
perity notably  that  ot  the  Jornal  do  Commercio,  wliiuh  appears  under  constrnetion  in  the 
illustmlion.  the  building  has  since  been  completed.  Tliis  daily  was  establislied  in  1^24, 
under  the  name  of  the  "Spectator,"  but  in  1«27  the  name  was  changed  to  its  present  title. 
The  Jornal  do  Commereio  is  the  leading  newspaper  of  Brazil.  Tiie  greatest  statesmen  and 
politicians  of  the  Empire  and  Republic  have  been,  at  difTereiit  times,  among  its  contributors. 

who  may  have  kuowu  tlie  cily  a  dozen  or  more  years  ago.     Among 
these  is  the   rniouavana.   17  meters  wi<U':  the  Assemblea.  the  same 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.      35 

width,  g'iving-  a  fine  view  of  the  bay ;  Carioca  street,  Visconde  do  Rio 
Branco,  Floriano,  24  meters  wide;  Trezede  Maio,  Passes  Avenida 
and  Inhaiinia,  30  meters  wide.  These  are  all  fine  streets,  with  many- 
handsome  bnildino-s  and  paved  witli  asj^halt. 

Among  the  new  buildings  are  the  Monroe  Palace,  covering  12,000 
square  meters,  one  of  the  finest  buildings  on  the  continent;  the  new 
Municipal  Theater,  marble  front,  bronze  decorated,  with  a  fine  dome; 
the  (Sao  Paulo  and  liio  (irande)  Railwaj^  Building,  gotliic,  ap- 
pearing like  a  great  middle-age  castle;  the  Botanical  Garden  Rail- 
way Company  Building;  the  Naval  Club,  new  classic  style;  the 
Treasury  Building,  with  its  beautiful  white  and  rose  mnrl^le  columns; 


NEW  BUILDINGS  ON  AVENIDA  CENTRAL,  KIO  DE  JANEIRO. 

These  structures  are  distinguished  by  their  various  styles  of  arehitecture.  They  are  all  new  and 
th<iri)UKlilv  modern,  averaging  about  60  feet  in  height,  although  many  of  them  are  125,  160, 
and  lyu  feet  high. 

the  Jornal  do  Commercio  Building,  the  Exhibition  Palace,  National 
Library,  marble  and  steel,  and  numbers  of  others. 

Many  cities  of  the  world  have  beautiful  streets  and  beautiful  build- 
ings, but  Rio  alone  has  the  Jardim  Botanico.  It  is  the  central  point 
of  interest  for  tourists.  What  Vesuvius  is  to  Naples,  the  Grand  Canal 
to  Venice,  or  the  Golden  Horn  to  Constantinople,  is  the  Botanical 
Garden  to  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Here  is  displayed  all  the  luxurient  wealth 
of  tropical  flora  in  its  most  attractive  aspect.  Its  magnificent  avenue, 
a  half  mile  in  length,  of  royal  palms,  is  worth  a  trip  to  Rio  to  see. 
Admission  to  the  garden  is  free,  and  a  line  of  trolley  cars  pass  the 
main  entrance. 


36 


IXTERXATTOXAL    BUREAU    GF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


The  city  of  I\io  de  Janeiro  and  its  environ.s  constitute  the  Federal 
District  of  the  United  States  of  Brazih  The  municipal  organiza- 
tion of  tlie  district  u  controlled  by  the  National  (loverninent.  hut 
the  right  of  the  DOO.OOO  inhabitants  to  a  voice  in  the  management 
of  local  afi'airs  is  safeguarded  in  two  ways: 

(1)  The  district  is  represented  in  the  Congress  of  Brazil  by  3 
senators  elected  for  nine  years  and  l)y  10  deputies  elected  for  three 
years. 

(2)  A  city  council  of  10  intendentes  or  members,  elected  by  direct 
suffrage  for  a  term  of  two  years.  The  council  meets  in  ordinary 
session  twice  a  a  ear. 


A  BAMBOO  GKOVE,  BOTANICAL  GARDEN,  RIO  DE  JANEIRO. 

The  spacious  grounds  cover  an  area  of  nearly  2,000  acres  situated  on  the  border  of  the  large 
suburban  lake,  Rodrigo  Freitus,  which  is  neir  the  seacoast  and  sejiarated  therefrom  by 
only  a  narrow  strip  of  sand.  Trolley  cars  from  Rio  pass  tl.e  main  entrance.  Tliis  world- 
famed  institution  is  supported  by  tlie  general  governme  it  for  thr  purpose  of  botanical  research 
and  climalical  experiments.  Its  natural  beauty  is  further  enliunced  by  the  tropical  luxuri- 
ance of  Brazilian  forests,  the  choicest  specimensof  native  tloni  preserved  in  all  their  artistic 
settings,  and  many  trees  and  rare  plants  from  foreign  lands. 

The  chief  executive  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  City  is  the  prefect,  who 
holds  office  for  four  years  and  is  appointed  by  the  President  of  the 
Republic  and  confirmed  by  the  senate.  Under  hiin  there  are  seven 
boards  or  directorias,  as  follows:  Public  estates  board.  pubHc  works 
and  transit,  board  of  health  and  pubHc  assistance,  the  council  of 
education,  the  board  of  forests,  gardens,  game  and  fishing,  the  board 
of  finance,  and  the  board  of  ])olice,  arcliives  and  statistics.  There 
are  3,080  municipal  employees,  with  sahiries  amounting  to  annually 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.      37 

$3,203,200  United  States  gold,  an  average  of  $1,040  each.  The 
revenue  of  the  federal  capital  Avas  in  IDOG  48,437,185  milreis,  or 
$1G.17T,2(')0,  while  the  expenditures  were  48.132,715  milreis,  or  $16,- 
075,575,  leaving-  a  surplus  of  $101.()85,     The  funded  del)t,  inclusive 


PALACE  UK  'inK  MINISTRY  OF  priU.ir  WORKS,  RIO  DE  JANEIRO. 

The  department  of  public  worts  is  closely  identiflea  with  the  recently  undertaken  improve- 
ments to  the  city  and  harbor.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  being  the  federal  capital,  is  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  government  authorities,  and  public  improvemeuis  are  carried  on  under  the  direct 
supervision  of  this  department. 

of  the  floating  debt  on  June  30,  1907,  amounted  to  £7,000,077  sterling, 
or  $35,003,385  United  States  gold.  The  floating  debt  is  £1,742,076, 
or  $8,710,380. 

The  sources  of  revenue,  in  1006,  were : 

Fx'om  state  property,  rents,  leases  and  dividends $l(il,405 

Public    services 1-  523,  020 

From  taxation : 

Merchandise  exported 1-1>  505 

Trades,  professions,  and  companies 1,891,150 

Real  estate   (house  tax) .    3,742,975 

Total  from  taxation 5,7.55,630 

Heterogeneous  and  eventual 995,785 


Total    ordinary S.  -1-15,  840 

Extraordinary,  loans 7,  GSl,  175 


Grand    total 1<>,  127,  015 


38         INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF   THE    AMERICAN   REPUBLICS. 

The  expenditures  for  the  yaine  year  were : 

Executive,  prefect,   etc $29,  830 

Legislature,    deinities 1^3,  995 

Hygiene   aud   public   assistance 309,545 

Education,  schools,  colleges,  and  universities 1,427,715 

Libraries,  museums,-  etc 1^'  "0^ 

Total  for  education 1,444,450 

Collection  and  distribution  of  revenue 626,985 

Administration  and  other  public  services 2,329,180 

Public   works 0,  418,  440 

Pensions 266,  975 

Eventual  and  heterogeneous 195.  425 

Service  of  the  debt : 

Foreign  funded,  amortization  and  interest 59,620 

Internal   funded,   amortization   and   interest 3,968,015 

Floating  debt,   amortization   and   interest 251,965 

Total  service  of  the  debt 4,  279,  600 

Grand    total 16.  044,  435 

The  public  debt  of  the  federal  capital,  in  1902,  amounted  to 
$878,395  T  .lited  States  gold;  in  1903,  to  $793,200;  in  1904,  to 
$1,170,885;  in  1905,  to  $1,730,300;  in  190G,  to  $2,699,245;  and  in  1907, 
to  $2,790,610,  shoAving  an  increase  in  six  j^ears  of  31.5  per  cent. 

Protection  to  life  and  property  is  adequately  assured  in  the  Federal 
District  through  a  highly  organized  and  efficient  police  force  of  more 
than  4,000  men  and  a  civil  guard  of  600,  which  latter  force  is  divided 
into  two  classes,  the  first  having  400  men  and  the  second  200.  One 
hundred  of  the  civil  guards  are  held  as  a  reserve.  Besides  the  ordi- 
nary police,  there  is  stationed  in  the  federal  capital  a  military  estab- 
lishment of  one  brigade  each  of  the  artillery  and  cavalry  and  seven 
brigades  of  the  infantry  of  the  Brazilian  national  army.  Rio  de 
Janeiro  is  divided,  for  police  and  civil  administration  purposes,  into 
20  urban  and  8  suburban  wards,  each  of  which  has  its  local  prefect 
and  other  administrative  agents. 

The  entire  police  department  is  under  the  supreme  supervision  of  a 
general  stall',  consisting  of  a  commandant-general,  an  assistant  of 
the  ministry  of  justice,  an  assistant  of  material,  an  assistant  of  the 
personnel,  a  secretary,  and  an  adjutant  of  orders.  The  department 
is  divided  into  the  following  sections: 

1.  Passports,  licenses,  and  corresj)()ndciice. 

2.  Criminal  section. 

3.  Statistics. 

4.  Accouutautship  and  excluMiuor. 


40  IXTERNATIOXAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

5.  Medical  service,  with  1  director  and  1-2  physicians. 

G.  Sanitary  service,  having  1  inspector,  1  fiscal,  10  physicians,  4 
chemists,  1  assistant  chemist,  1  surgical  dentist,  1  oculist,  and  7  tem- 
porar}'  j^ractitioners, 

7.  Archives. 

8.  Detention  of  prisoners, 

9.  Cabinet  of  identification  and  statistics,  which  has  the  subdivi- 
sions of  identification,  statistics,  information,  and  photography. 

10.  Treasury. 

11.  Harbor  police. 


INSPECTION  OF  FIREMEN,  RIO  DE  JANEIRO. 

Thefire-fiKhtiiii?  force  consists  of  600  officers  and  men,  organized  on  a  militarv  basis.  The  corps 
and  eiiuipment  are  so  efficient  and  modern,  and  the  service  so  well  arranged,  that  only  twenty 
seconds  are  required  to  get  the  engines  out  of  the  tire  halls.  All  repair  work  is  done  by  the 
firemen  in  the  shops  which  adjoin  the  central  station. 

12.  Inspectorshij)  of  the  corps  of  investigation  and  public  safety. 

13.  Inspectorship  of  vehicles  (composed  of  1  inspector.  2  account- 
ants, and  00  assistants). 

Each  administrative  district  of  the  Federal  Capital  has  a  "  delegate,'' 
representing  the  commandant-general  of  police,  besides  an  official 
of  justice,  an  accountant,  generally,  and  several  "commissioners," 
varying  in  number  according  to  the  imi)ortance  of  the  district.  The 
entire  police  force  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  City  is  organized  on  a  strictly 
niiHtary  basis,  and  has  one  regiment  of  cavalry  and  two  regiments 
of  infantry. 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IX    LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.      41 

The  house  of  detention  of  the  federal  capital  is  under  one  admin- 
istrator, assisted  by  a  physician. 

The  house  of  correction  is  administered  by  one  director,  aided  by 
one  assistant  director. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  in  latitude  22°,  54'  S.,  and  longitude  W.  from 
Greenwich  43  °,  10 ',  is  about  as  far  south  of  the  equator  as  Havana, 
Cuba,  is  north.  Its  climate  must  generally  be  regarded  as  warmer 
than  that  of  Havana,  except  on  the  summits  of  the  surrounding 
mountains.  There  is  a  dry  season  from  May  to  Xovember,  and  a 
Avet  season  from  November  to  Mi\y.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is 
75°,  the  maximum  80°,  in  February,  and  the  minimum  70°,  in  July. 


TREASURY  BUILDING,  RIO  DK  JANEIRO,  BRAZIL. 

The  Caixa  de  Amortiza?ao,  or  Treasury  Building,  of  the  federal  capital,  fronts  on  tlie  new 
Avenida  Central,  and  commands  especial  attention  because  of  its  imposing  proportions  and 
attractive  style  of  architecture.    It  is  solidly  and  artistically  constructed  of  stone. 

Climatic  conditions  are  modified  by  the  southwest  and  southeast 
trade  winds  from  the  Atlantic.  Sudden  changes  of  twenty  degrees, 
in  the  course  of  a  day,  are  not  infrequent.  Health  conditions  are 
excellent.  A  comparison  of  the  annual  death  rate  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
in  1005,  with  that  of  the  leading  cities  of  the  world  shows  that  the 
Brazilian  federal  capital,  with  a  mortality  per  thousand  of  21.7,  is 
about  on  a  par  with  Havana,  21.2;  Genoa,  21.5;  Dublin,  21.2;  Milan, 
21.1;  and  Marseilles,  21.4.  The  record  for  1007,  according  to  figures 
furnished  by  the  board  of  health  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  proves  that  there 
was  a  marked  decrease  in  the  mortality  of  that  city,  notwithstanding 
65357— Bull.  1—09 i 


42 


INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


a  considerable  growth  in  population.     The  mortality  for  1906  and 
1907  was  13,9G0  and  12,100,  respectively.     This  diminution  is  largely 


CENTRAL  STATION  OP  THE  FIRE  DEPARTMENT,  RIO  DE  JANEIRO. 

This  most  important  institution  for  the  protection  of  public  nnd  private  property  embraces  n  ccn- 
tnil  station  and  six  substtitions,  one  of  whicli  is  located  on  tlie  sliori'  of  llii'  bay,  and  in  addition 
to  the  usual  e(iuipmeiit,  is  j)rovided  witli  two  large  lireboals  for  the  protection  of  the  harbor 
shipping.  The  central  station  is  a  handsome  modern  building,  in  whieli  are  maintained  manu- 
facturing and  repair  shops  for  the  use  of  the  department. 

due  to  the  admirable  system  of  having  in  each  urban  and  suburban 
district  a  branch  of  the  central  health  department,  where  free  medi- 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.      43 

cal  assistance  and  advice  are  given  to  the  poor,  and  whenever  neces- 
sary skilled  i^hysicians  and  nurses  visit  them  in  their  homes.  The 
capital  is,  moreover,  now  exempt  from  yellow  fever,  a  resvdt  which 
has  been  achieved  by  the  distinguished  Brazilian  physician,  Doctor 
Cruz,  whose  energetic  ett'orts  have  exterminated  that  former  scourge 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

The  local  census,  taken  September  '20,  1900,  showed  that  the  federal 
district  had  on  that  date  811,443  inhabitants,  •403,453  males  and 
347,990  females,  living.  The  population  has  increased  since  1890  by 
288,792  souls — that  is,  by  55.20  per  cent.  The  annual  increase  was 
3.515  pev  cent.     Rio  de  Janeiro  thus  compares  very  favorably  with 


RUA  DA  CARIOCA,  RIO  DE  JANEIRO,  BRAZIL. 
This  typical  business  street  of  the  metropolis  of  the  Republic  is  important  in  retail  trade. 

Chicago,  Pittsburg,  Buffalo,  and  Clevelan.l.  The  annual  1)irth  rate 
in  1900  was  209.5  per  1,000.  The  area  of  the  federal  district  is  538 
square  miles,  and  had.  in  1900,  a  density  of  1.338  inhabitants  per 
square  mile.  Its  area  is  nearly  one  and  one-half  times  larger  than 
that  of  New  York,  approximately  twice  as  large  as  that  of  Chicago, 
virtually  three  and  one-half  times  as  nuich  as  that  of  Philadelphia, 
almost  four  times  as  large  as  that  of  London,  and  nearly  eight  times 
larger  than  that  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

Although  education  has  not  as  yet  been  made  compulsory  in  Brazil, 
both  the  National  Government  as  well  as  the  municipality  are  pro- 
moting in  every  possible  way  universal  instruction  and  self-improve- 


44 


INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


ment  among;  the  inhabitants  of  the  federal  capital  Public  as  well  as 
private  instruction  is  conducted  under  the  supervision  of  a  "  General 
directory  of  public  instruction."  and  a  "  Superior  counsel  of  instruc- 
tion."*    The  former  organization  is  under  a  director-general. 

Public  instruction  is  divided  into  primary,  corresponding  to  the 
primary  and  grammar  grades  of  the  United  States,  superior  (high 
school  and  academic),  and  university.  Under  the  first-named  de- 
j)artment  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  there  were  18G  "  primary  public 
schools ""  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  City  in  1007,  of  which  134  were  for  girls, 
49  for  boys,  and  3  mixed.  Sevent^^-two  teachers,  and  200  assistant 
teachers  were  employed  in  the  primary  department.     The  instruction 


GOXQALVES  BIAS  SCHOOL,  RIO  DE  JANEIRO. 

This  handsome  school  edifice  in  Rio  is  surrounded  by  a  beautiful  garden  filled  with  tropical  plants 
and  trees.  It  faces  Christovao  I'ark,  and  is  one  of  the  most  solidly  constructed  school  buildings 
of  the  capital. 

given  was  purely  secular  and  comprised  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,. 
Portuguese  grammar,  geography,  history,  and  general  moral,  scien- 
tific, and  civic  principles,  drawing,  calisthenics,  and  sewing,  divided 
into  three  courses,  elementary,  intermediate,  and  higher.  The  pri- 
mary schools  are  supplemented  by  Avhat  are  known  as  "elementary 
schools,"  which  are  private  institutions.  They  receive  a  subvention 
from  the  municipality  on  condition  that  they  shall  adopt  the  official 
j)rogramme  and  admit  a  certain  number  of  children  free.  There  are 
at  present  79  schools  of  this  sort,  with  5,130  pupils  and  an  average 
attendance  of  2,370.  The  teachers  are  either  normal-school  graduates 
or  have  passed  a  special  government  examination. 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN     LATIN-AMERICAN     CAPITALS.      45 

A.mono-  the  i^iiblic  institutions  for  superior  instruction,  should  be 
mentioned  the  Institute  Professional  for  Mules,  which  is  limited  to 
300  pupils.  Students  enter  at  the  age  of  12  and  leave  at  -20.  The 
subjects  taught  are:  rrinuiry  courses,  music  and  drawing,  carpentry, 
cabinetmaking,  sculpture,  typesetting,  bookbinding,  tailoring,  iron 
and  tinsmith's  work,  and  bootmaking.  In  the  Female  Instituto 
the  number  of  pupils  is  limited  to  120  and  ai)plicants  are  admitted 
up  to  15  years  of  age.  Instruction  is  given  in  the  primary  courses, 
elements  of  hygiene,  shorthand,  typewriting,  domestic  economy,  draw- 
ing, music,  sewing,  embroidery,  and  artificial-flower  making. 

The  federal  capital  maintains  five  "  model  schools  "  in  which  certifi- 
cated teachers,  intending  to  become  professors,  ure  trained  as  assistants. 
The  normal  school,  or  '•  pedagogium,"  has  a  curriculum  of  four  series: 
(1)  Portuguese,  French,  arithmetic,  geography,  music,  manual  train- 
ing, needlework,  handwriting,  and  calisthenics;  (2)  Portuguese, 
French,  algebra,  geometry,  geography,  history,  linear  drawing,  music, 
and  needlework;  (3)  Portuguese,  French,  American  history,  physics, 
pedagogy,  manual  training,  and  ornamental  designing;  (4)  Brazilian 
literature,  chemistry,  history  of  Brazil,  and  civic  instruction,  pedagogy, 
hygiene,  and  drawing  from  the  model.  The  school  is  under  the  direct 
superintendence  of  the  council  of  education.  From  1900  to  1904,  320 
students  received  certificates  as  normal  teachers.  All  such  certificated 
teachers  must  practice  under  certificated  professors  for  one  year  and 
obtain  certificates  of  competence  as  professors.  The  pedagogium  is 
also  intended  to  serve  as  a  school  for  higher  education  of  primary 
professors.  Classes  are  held  at  night  and  comprise  "  permanent 
courses  "  of  physical  and  natural  sciences,  "  contracted  courses  "'  on 
letters,  biology,  and  pedagogy,  and  "  free  courses  "  on  mathematics, 
philology,  sociology,  technical  industries,  arts,  etc.  In  1902  seven 
courses  w^ere  given;  the  number  of  students  was  153.  In  1903  ten 
courses,  with  143  students,  were  given,  and  in  1904,  IT  courses  with 
194  students. 

There  is  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  city  no  university,  properly  so  called,  but 
there  are  in  Brazil  six  faculties  which  confer  degrees,  of  which  two — 
the  Faculty  of  Medicine  and  the  Polytechnic  School — are  located  in 
the  capital.  The  cost  of  university  education  is  provided — by  an 
annual  grant  that  for  the  last  ten  years  has  ranged  from  2,()00,000 
milreis  to  3,400,000  milreis  ($866  667  to  $1,133,334  United  States 
gold). 

The  Polytechnic  School  was  founded  December  4,  1810.  It 
grants  certificates  of  civil,  mining,  industrial,  and  mechanical  engi- 
neer, and  the  title  of  agronomist  and  geographical  engineer.  This 
school  ranks  in  every  respect  among  the  best  of  technical  institu- 
tions in  the  world  and  offers  six  distinct  courses,  namely,  a  "  funda- 


46  INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


mental  course*'  (three  years),  a  course  of  civil  enaineerino-  (two 
years),  a  course  of  miiiino-  engineerino-  (two  years),  a  course  of  indus- 
trial engineering    (two  years),  a  course  of  mechanical  engincei-ing 


COMMERCIAL  AND  OFFICE  BriLDINGS,  AVEXIDA  CENTRAL.  RIO  PE  JANERIO. 

This  fiuiious  avtiine  was  laid  out  and  many  of  Uic  old  l)i!ildinf;s  demolished  and  reconstnicted 
within  a  remarkably  short  period  of  time,  presenlinjr  an  examitle  of  aetivitv  ami  proirress  in 
city  huildinf?  nneiinaled  in  the  worhL  Some  of  the  editiees  eover  an  entire  square  and  repre- 
sent an  expenditure  of  sums  from  half  a  million  to  live  millions  of  dollars. 

(two  years),  and  a  course  of  agricuhuial  engineering   (two  years). 
There  are  52  professors  among  the  faculty  of  the  school. 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN     CAPITALS.      47 

The  total  number  of  professors  at  the  different  municipal  schools 
of  the  federal  district  is  875,  as  follows:  There  are  6  directors  of 
model  schools,  193  head  masters,  300  permanent  professors,  7  of  the 
elementary  first  class,  and  72  of  the  elementary  second  class;  total, 
778.  The  normal  school  (Pedagogium)  has  45  professors  and  assist- 
ants.    Technical  education  has  52  professors. 

Private  initiative  and  philanthropy  (both  on  the  part  of  the  native 
Brazilians,  as  well  as  of  the  foreign  residents)  have  ably  cooperated 
with  the  public  authorities  in  increasing  the  opportunities  for  uni- 
versal education  by  establishing  and  maintaining  throughout  the 
federal  capital  a  great  variety  of  primary  schools,  academies,  col- 
leges, and  other  institutions  of  instruction,  which  are  of  the  high- 
est excellence. 

The  National  Government  of  Brazil  maintains  in  the  federal 
capital  the  following  educational  institutions:  Deaf  and  dumb  and 
blind  asylums,  the  National  School  of  Music,  the  National  School 
of  Art,  the  JNIilitary  Academy,  the  Preparatory  School  of  Tactics, 
and  the  Naval  School. 

The  National  School  of  Art  was  founded  in  1816.  A  fine  new 
building  is  now  in  course  of  erection  in  the  Central  avenue.  The 
National  School  of  Music  was  founded  in  1847.  The  staff  consists 
of  19  professors  and  13  assistants.  The  Military  College  was 
founded  in  1889.  Children  and  grandchildren  of  army  officers  and 
of  privates  killed  in  action  are  educated  at  public  expense:  civilians 
are  admitted  on  payment.  From  this  college  students  pass  to  the 
higher  military  or  naval  school,  but  it  is  not  obligatory. 

The  School  for  the  Blind,  called  the  ''  Instituto  Benjamin  Con- 
stant," was  founded  in  1857.  The  land  on  which  the  building  stands 
covers  9.51G  square  meters,  or  102,373  square  feet,  on  the  shores  of 
the  beautiful  bay  of  Botafogo,  and  was  a  gift  from  the  P]mperor 
DoM  Pedro  II.  The  Deaf  and  Dumb  School  was  founded  in  1856. 
There  are  about  600  children  Avho  receive  oral  instruction  in  this 
institution. 

The  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  well  provided  with  libraries,  of  which 
there  are  12.  Two  of  these,  the  National  and  the  Municipal,  and  the 
rest  belong  to  associations  or  to  the  Brazilian  army  and  navy.  The 
National  Library  Building,  now  in  course  of  construction,  will  be 
the  most  magnificent  in  South  America.  The  origin  of  this  library 
Avas  due  to  the  flight  of  King  Joao  VI,  of  Portugal,  to  Brazil,  in 
1807.  It  contained,  in  1907,  130.000  volumes,  a  valuable  collection  of 
25,150  medals,  many  of  them  very  rare,  and  100,000  engravings.  The 
average  monthly  attendance  of  readers  is  3,300. 

The  "  Gabinete  Portuguez  de  Leitura  "  is  the  most  beautiful  build- 
ing in  Eio  de  Janeiro.     The  library  comprises  7,000  volumes,  ad- 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IX    LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.       49 

mirably  arranged.  The  collection  of  ctunocnana  (Canides)  is  believed 
to  be  the  most  perfect  in  existence. 

The  hospitals  and  asylums  of  the  Federal  District  are  undertaken 
chiefly  by  private  associations  assisted  by  the  Government.  Among 
the  most  important  of  these  institutions  are  the  following:  Ma- 
ternidade,  or  lying-in  hospital,  which  is  a  private  association  as- 
sisted by  the  National  Government.  The  Institute  for  the  Protection 
and  Assistance  of  Children.  The  society,  besides  giving  medical 
advice  and  aid  to  poor  children,  is  of  inestimable  benefit  to  women 
who  are  about  to  become  mothers. 

The  HosjDital  da  ]Miseric()rdia,  of  Spanish  origin,  was  founded  by 
the  Jesuit  priest  Father  Anchieta  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Its 
modern  reorganization  was  in  1840.  Thirty  years  were  rec|uired  t ) 
complete  the  edifice.  It  can  take  care  of  1.200  patients,  and  is  de- 
signed especially  for  the  accommodation  of  sick  sailors  of  all  nations. 
The  hospital  is  divided  into  f  )ur  departments:  The  Asylum  of 
Misericordia  for  Abandoned  Girls;  the  Asylum  of  Santa  Maria  for 
Old  Women:  the  Hospital  of  Xossa  Senhora  dos  Dolores  at  Casadura, 
for  Consumption,  and  the  Pasteur  Institute  for  the  Treatment  of 
Hvdrophol)ia. 

The  Casa  de  Sao  Jose  for  male  orphan  or  neglected  children  of  6  to 
12  years  of  age  is  accomplishing  excellent  work.  There  is  a  similar 
asylum  for  female  children.  Both  institutions  are  maintained  by 
the  municipality.  The  Fifteenth  of  November  Reformatory  for  Va- 
grant Children  is  an  institution  of  the  National  Government,  and  is 
under  the  supervision  of  the  police.  The  Goncalves  Araujo  Asylum 
is  conducted  and  supported  l)y  the  Candelaria  Brotherhood. 

Among  the  most  interesting  of  other  philanthropical  associations 
are  the  181  registered  "  friendly  societies,"  whose  accumulated  funds  in 
1902  amounted  to  $3,550,235,  and  they  had  an  aggregate  income  of 
$391,515.  They  distributed,  in  1902,  $30,915  among  associates,  and 
since  the  founding  of  the  earliest  of  these  associations,  a  Swiss  society, 
in  1821,  have  distributed  $3,398,635.  The  181  societies,  in  1902,  had  a 
total  of  93,851  associates. 

The  government  of  the  Federal  District  maintains  a  strict  super- 
vision over  factories  and  stores.  Under  the  present  law  the  majority 
of  shops  close  at  8  oVlock  on  ordinary  nights  and  at  4  on  holidays. 
Only  cafes,  bars,  and  restaurants  are  open  all  day  on  Sundays,  and 
grocers  and  tobacconists  up  to  12  (noon).  Other  places  of  business 
are  required  to  be  closed. 

Lighting,  rapid  transit,  and  motive  power  are  exclusively  furnished 
in  the  Federal  District  by  the  Rio  de  Janeiro  Tramway,  Light  and 
Power  Company,  operating  under  a  concession  from  the  numicipality, 
and  registered  in  Toronto,  Canada.     The  company  possesses  a  tre- 


50 


INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


mendoiis  natural  source  of  power  on  the  River  Das  Lages,  51  miles 
distant  from  the  city  of  Eio  de  Janeiro.  It  has  installed  at  this  point 
one  of  the  most  extensive  and  modern  hydraulic-electric  generating 
systems  in  the  world.  The  company  is  the  owner  of  the  share  capital 
of  the  Companhias  Sao  Christovtio,  Carris  Urbanos  and  Villa  Isabel, 
which  provides  about  three-fourths  of  the  tramway  service  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  The  various  concessions  granted  by  the  federal  capital  were 
consolidated  and  extended  until  1970,  by  virtue  of  a  contract  made 
with  the  municipality,  in  November,  1007,  the  Rio  de  Janeiro  Tram- 
way, Light  and  Power  Company  to  install  electric  lighting  and  power 


THE  I'ALAl'K  OF  THE  rUKSIDEXT,  KIO  DK  JANEIKO,  nUA/IL. 

througliout  the  cai)ital  within  a  period  of  about  three  years,  and  to 
construct  about  'JOO  miles  of  new  lines.  The  lines  of  the  Villa  Isabel 
are  already  electrified,  and  the  work  of  transforming  the  traction  of 
the  other  companies  is  commenced. 

The  Societe  Anonyme  de  (Jaz  de  Rio  de  Janeiro,  a  Belgian  enter- 
prise, was  acquired  by  the  conqiany,  which  now  controls  the  whole 
of  the  illumination  of  the  capital  by  gas  and  electricity,  through 
a  concession  granted  by  the  (Jovermnent  in  100.")  with  a  monopoly 
until  1915.  All  parts  of  the  city  are  now  illuminated  by  gas,  the 
electric  lighting  being  confined  for  the  present  to  the  new  avenues 
recently  opened  and  the  central  connnercial  section.     Electric  light- 


MUNICIPAL,    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN     CAPITALS.       51 

ing  is  to  be  greatly  extended  during  the  present  year.  The  Rio  de 
Janeiro  Tramway,  Light  and  Power  Company  (by  a  concession 
from  the  municipality)  enjoys  a  monopoly  for  the  distribution  of 
electric  power,  produced  in  a  hydraulic  installation  until  1915,  and 
thereafter  the  right  continues  without  monopoly  until  1900.  There 
is  now  furnished  3,000  horsepower,  but  this  will  soon  be  greatlv 
increased.  Concessions  recently  acquired  by  the  company  give  it 
full  control  of  the  telephones  throughout  the  Federal  District.  The 
entire  system  has  been  largely  reconstructed  with  a  new  building, 
having  a  new  central  telephone  board  of  the  most  modern  design. 
Improved  instruments  have  been  given  to  the  2,500  subscribers, 
whose  number  will  soon  be  increased  to  5,000.  Street  circuits  have 
been  rebuilt  and  a  large  amount  of  aerial  cables  has  been  installed 
to  take  the  place  of  the  network  of  overhead  wires  in  the  streets, 
thus  greatly  improving  the  service.  A  large  part  of  the  system  is 
in  underground  cables,  and  it  is  expected  that  this  will  be  extended 
from  year  to  year  until  all  overhead  wires  in  the  populous  districts 
have  been  removed. 


^r; 


INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  REPUBUCS 

JpHNBARRE^TT.     DIRE^CTOR 

FKANCISCO  J.  YANES,  SECRETARY 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 


SANTIAGO  DE  CHILE 


(Reprint  of  an  article  from  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  March,  1 909) 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1909 


INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 

JOHN     BARREITT.     D  I  R  EL  C  T  O  R 
FRANCISCO  J.  YANES,  SECRETARY 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 


SANTIAGO  DE  CHILE 


(Reprint  of  an  article  from  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  March,  I  909) 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1909 


#1    Ti 


4    I 


SANTIAGO  DE  CHILE. 

SAXTIAGO  lies  at  the  head  of  the  great  central  valley  of  Chile 
on  the  Mapocho  River.  To  the  west,  the  Cordillera  of  the 
Coast  stretches  north  and  south,  a  range  of  hills  and  low 
mountains  parallel  with  and  near  to  the  Pacific. 

This  range  now  represents  the  worn-down  remnants  of  Avhat  was 
once  a  great  mountain  system  and  the  oldest  land  in  the  southern  half 
of  South  America. 

To  the  east  rises  in  magnificent  grandeur  that  great  fold  of  the 
earth's  crust  known  as  the  Cordillera  of  the  Andes.  The  Andes  are 
new  mountains,  with  their  angularity  and  roughness  unworn  ;uid 
unsmoothed  by  long-continued  action  of  the  elements.  Between  the 
two  Cordilleras,  the  old  and  the  new,  lies  the  central  valley  of  Chile, 
shut  off  at  the  north  by  a  spur  of  the  Andes  extending  to  the  coast. 
At  the  foot  of  this  spur  lies  Santiago. 

By  railway  from  Valparaiso  one  arrives  at  the  capital  unexpect- 
edh'.  After  leaving  Llai-llai  the  line  runs  through  a  more  or  less 
barren  country",  rough  and  rocky,  and  then  suddenly  from  out  of  this 
wilderness  the  train  enters  a  long  street  between  walls  and  houses, 
and  the  traveler  finds  himself  almost  in  the  center  of  a  large  city  and 
at  the  beginning  of  the  most  beautiful  street  in  that  Q\iy. 

This  street,  the  Alameda,  is  one  of  the  beautiful  avenues  of  South 
America.  It  is  a  fine,  broad  driveway  planted  with  a  double  row  of 
gigantic  i^ojolars  and  lined  for  its  greater  length  with  fine  buildings. 
The  promenade  in  the  center  is  set  with  statues  erected  to  the  memory 
of  the  heroes  of  the  war  of  independence,  San  Martin,  O'Higgins, 
FiJKiHE,  Molina,  Carijera,  and  others. 

The  most  notable  natural  feature  of  Santiago  is  the  liill  or  rock  of 
Santa  Lucia,  300  feet  in  height,  which  rises  almost  from  the  heart  of 
the  city.  On  Santa  Lucia,  Pkdro  de  Vaedivia  established  his  strong- 
hold, and  around  its  base  he  founded  the  first  town  in  Chile,  which  he 
named  after  the  j)atron  saint  of  Spain.  The  (own  was  laiil  out  in 
squares,  as  it  is  to-day,  with  the  lines  running  east  and  west  and  north 
and  south. 
430 


432       INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

To  each  of  Valdivia's  followers  was  given  one  square  for  a  garden 
and  upon  Avhicli  to  build  his  house.  After  the  conquest,  for  four 
hundred  years  Santa  Lucia  remained  what  it  was  in  Valdivia's  time, 
a  bold  and  unsightly  rock  rising  out  of  the  midst  of  the  growing  city. 

After  it  ceased  to  be  a  stronghold  and  refuge  from  the  Indians, 
it  had  no  use  until  about  a  hundred  j-ears  ago,  when  it  began  to  be 
used  as  a  Protestant  cemeteiy.  Near  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tuiT  Santiago  determined  to  convert  this  unsightly  eminence  into  the 
beautiful  park  it  is  to-day.  The  necessary  expense  was  borne,  not 
alone  by  the  Government  and  the  municipality,  but,  in  a  hirge  meas- 
ure, by  private  contriljution.  The  scheme  included  not  only  the 
beautification  of  Santa  Lucia,  but  also  the  laying  out  of  other  parks, 
the  broadening  and  repaving  of  streets,  and,  what  Avas  the  greatest 
Avork  of  all,  the  rebuilding  of  the  Alameda  de  las  Delicias,  the  Via 
Appia  of  Santiago.  Cousiho  Park,  one  of  the  most  popular  retreats 
in  Santiago,  is  named  after  Don  Luis  Cousixo,  who  donated  the 
park  of  330  acres  to  the  city. 

Beginning  in  1872,  under  the  administration  of  Don  Benjamin 
Vicuna  Mackenna,  the  improvement  of  Santiago  has  been  continued 
down  to  the  present  time. 

^^Tien  Santiago  was  merely  a  Spanish  colonial  village  on  the  banks 
of  the  Mapocho  River,  the  Alameda  de  las  Djelicias  was  the  ordinary 
main  higliAvay  leading  to  the  town.  ]Much  of  the  land  over  which 
the  road  passed  was  Ioav  and  marshy,  and  for  a  distance  it  occupied 
what  had  been  the  bed  of  a  small  branch  of  the  ]\Iapocho.  As  late 
as  lift}'  3'ears  ago  it  was  an  ill-kept  and  most  unattractive  thorough- 
fare, paved  with  rough,  uneven,  and  ill-set  stones.  To-day  it  is  a 
broad  avenue,  ?>^>0  feet  wide  and  nearly  3  miles  long,  extending  across 
the  city  from  the  hill  of  Santa  Lucia  to  the  Central  Railway'  Station. 
Trees  and  floAvers  are  everywhere  intersj^ersed  Avith  fountains,  stat- 
uary, and  other  Avorks  of  art. 

Tavo  of  the  most  noted  pieces  of  statuary  are  the  equestrian  statues 
of  San  Martin  and  O'Higgins.  The  celebrated  liberator.  General 
Jose  San  Martin.  avIio  led  the  patriot  army  across  the  Andes  in  the 
cause  of  Chilean  independence,  is  represented  holding  in  his  hand 
the  standard  of  liberty,  the  horse  thrown  back  on  his  haunches.  Gen- 
eral Bernardo  O'IIiggins,  ''  the  braA^est  of  the  braA'c,''  is  shoAvn  with 
sword  extended  at  arm's  length  in  air,  his  horse  in  the  act  of  leaping 
some  obstacle  on  the  battlefield  of  Rancagua. 

Santa  Lucia  is  noAV  one  of  the  most  renuirkable  parks  in  existence. 
The  Avhole  hill  presents  one  mass,  almost  bewildering,  of  grottoes, 
terraces,  stairAvays,  stucco  Avork  of  all  kinds,  planted  with  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  semitro])ical  vegetation  through  Avhich  paths  Avind  in  and 
out  to  shady  nooks  or  observation  ])()ints.  The  view  from  any  one  of 
these  points  is  most  attractive.     At  the  foot,  the  city  Avitli  a  poj^ula- 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.       435 

tion  of  400,000  stretches  out  around  the  hill  and  on  both  sides  of 
the  Mapocho,  with  parks  large  and  small  relieving  the  geometrical 
regularity  of  rectangular  crossings.  Through  the  whole  cuts  the 
broad  Alameda  lined  with  stately  and  beautiful  buildings  with  the 
broad  promenade  dowm  the  middle  masked  in  a  floral  wealth  of  almost 
tropic  luxuriance. 

To  the  east  and  northeast,  seemingly  almost  within  touch,  rise 
17,000  feet  in  air  the  rugged  and  overpowering  Andes,  jagged, 
scarred,  snowcapped,  and  awe  inspiring.  To  the  west  the  low  coast 
range  shuts  off  the  ocean,  and  to  the  south,  spreading  out  until  lost 
in  the  distance,  lies  one  of  the  garden  spots  of  the  world,  the  rich 
Central  Valley  of  Chile.  There  appear  to  be  no  foothills ;  the  Andes 
rise  abruptly  from  the  plains,  making  the  picture  as  seen  from  the 
crest  of  Santa  Lucia  the  more  perfect  and  satisfying. 

Among  the  most  striking  buildings  in  Santiago  are:  La  Moneda, 
the  residence  of  the  President  of  the  Eepublic,  in  which  are  located 
also  the  offices  of  several  of  the  Government  departments;  the  national 
Congress  Hall,  a  modern  construction  of  vast  size  and  magnificent 
architecture;  the  Intendancy  of  the  province  and  the  city  hall,  in 
which  are  installed  the  principal  offices  of  local  administration; 
the  cathedral,  which  has  been  completely  reconstructed  and  adjoining 
which  is  the  archiepiscopal  palace,  the  residence  of  the  Metropolitan 
of  Chile;  the  post-office,  a  modern  and  handsome  building;  the 
National  Library,  a  large  edifice  covering  22,000  square  feet,  con- 
taining about  15,000  volumes;  the  Palace  of  Justice,  in  which  the 
Supreme  Court,  the  Courts  of  Appeal,  and  several  minor  courts  and 
offices  are  located ;  the  Army  Building,  the  headquarters  of  the  army, 
and  also  the  barracks  of  the  President's  guard  of  honor. 

Other  public  buildings  are  the  Municipal  Theater,  one  of  the  best 
in  America;  the  Palace  of  the  Exposition,  the  University,  the 
Ordnance  Building,  Medical  School,  School  of  Arts  and  Trades, 
Astronomical  Observatory,  Home  for  Orphans,  Insane  Asylum, 
Agricultural  Institute,  National  Conservatory  of  Music,  and  the 
Catholic  Seminary. 

Near  the  Cousino  Park  is  the  racing  park,  one  of  the  most  popular 
meeting  places  in  the  city. 

The  Agricultural  School  Farm,  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
valuable  centers  of  instruction,  covers  320  acres  and  was  founded  in 
1842.  Connected  with  the  school  farm  are  several  institutes — the 
botanical  garden  with  four  large  conservatories  containing  several 
thousand  plants;  the  agricultural  institute,  which  has  under  its  charge 
the  higher  branches  of  agriculture ;  the  agricultural  training  school, 
whose  principal  aim  is  to  create  specialties  in  agriculture,  having, 
with  other  dependencies,  departments  of  viticulture  and  viniculture; 
vaccine  institute,  veterinary  institute,  and  laboratories  devoted  to 
721ST— Bull.  3—09 G 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.       437 

agricultural  chemistry  and  vegetable  pathology.  Agricultural  in- 
struction is  free  and  is  supported  by  government. 

Mining  instruction  is  given  in  the  university  and  in  a  sf»ecial 
school  devoted  to  training  mine  superintendents. 

Industrial  instruction  in  most  branches  has  been  very  highly  organ- 
ized both  in  the  university  and  in  the  School  of  Arts  and  Trades. 
This  institute  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  country.  The 
Sociedad  de  Fomento  Fahril  has  founded  and  manages  schools  of 
industrial  drawing,  modeling,  and  electricity.  A  commercial  tech- 
nical institute  has  over  500  pupils. 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHILE,  SANTIAGO,  CHILE. 

This  government  institution  was  founded  in  1843,  with  Don  Andres  Bello,  a  philologist  of  world-wide 
reputation,  as  its  first  president.  The  courses  of  study  in  its  several  schools  cover  a  period  of  five 
to  seven  years. 

The  university  offers  instruction  through  faculties  of  law,  medi- 
cine, and  engineering.  Courses  in  law  and  engineering  are  five  years 
each;  medicine  is  a  six  years'  course.  The  School  of  Medicine  in 
particular  enjoys  a  very  high  reputation  in  all  Latin- American  coun- 
tries. The  Institute  of  Pedagogy  is  for  the  preparation  of  teachers 
in  schools  of  secondary  instruction  and  the  two  normal  schools  for 
teachers  in  primary  schools. 

The  Board  of  Public  Hygiene  has  charge  of  matters  of  sanitation. 
The  Institute  of  Hygiene,  directed  by  the  board,  is  divided  into  five 
departments — hygiene  and  statistics,  chemistry  and  toxicology, 
microscopy  and  bacteriology,  seroterapathy,  and    disinfection.      In 


MUNICIPAL    OEGANIZATIOX    IX    LATIN-AMERICATST    CAPITALS.       439 

addition  there  are  special  departments  of  pnblic  health  having  charge 
of  matters  pertaining  to  infectious  diseases,  vaccination,  and  chemical 
study  and  analysis  of  food  products. 

One  of  the  most  important  establishments  for  securing  instruction 
is  the  National  Institute,  with  a  roll  of  about  1.500  matriculates. 

Private  and  church  schools  supply  instruction  to  about  30,000 
pupils  a  year,  and  instruction  in  the  fine  arts  is  given  in  the  School 
of  Fine  Arts  and  in  the  Conservatory  of  Music. 

Military  instruction  is  given  in  the  Military  School,  which  corre- 
sponds to  West  Point  in  the  United  States,  and  where  young  men 
in  preparation  to  become  army  officers  are  educated ;  also  in  the  War 


THE  NATIONAL  LIBRARY  OF  SANTIAGO,  CHILE. 

The  library  contains  more  than  150,000  vohimes  and  manuscripts!,  and  circulates  about  40,000  volumes 
annually  To  the  left  is  a  statue  of  Don  Andres  Bello,  first  president  of  the  National  I  niversity  of 
Chile,  who,  although  bom  in  Venezuela,  spent  most  of  his  life  in  Chile  working  for  the  intellectual 
uplift  of  its  people. 

School,  attended  by  army  officers  of  all  grades  and  where  the  higher 
branches  of  military  art  are  studied;  in  the  Target  Practice  School, 
which  is  specially  devoted  to  practice  and  instruction  in  ballistics, 
and  the  School  for  Xon-commissioned  Officers,  where  young  men  are 
prepared  for  the  lower  grades  of  army  command. 

The  city  of  Santiago  is  a  municipality  in  the  Department  of  Santi- 
ago, Province  of  Santiago. 

The  idea  of  communal  autonomy,  so  common  and  basic,  not  only 
in  the  political  economy  of  Greece  and  Rome,  but  also  in  that  of  the 
Teutonic  and  Sclav  races  of  the  north  and  east  of  Europe,  has  had 


SOLDIER   OF  A  CHILEAN   CAVALRY  REGIMENT  ON   A  WAR   FOOTING. 

ThP  militarv  (.ruaiii/iition  of  Chile  is  inoric'lecl  after  the  German  array,  ami  <^^ermim  instructors  are 
emplovec?w ith  in  view.    The  active  army  in  time  of  peace  consists  of  sixteen  batta hons 

oHnfantrv  six  regiments  of  cavalry,  an.l  seven  rcKiments  of  artillery,  witli  anxiliaries  All  able- 
bodredciUzenyof  Chile  are  obliged  to  serve,  liability  for  which  extends  irom  the  eighteenth  to 
the  forty-fifth  year. 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.       441 

but  scant  hold  in  Spain  since  the  lionian  colonial  period  and  until 
very  recent  times.  It  never  had  any  foothold  whatever  in  the  Spanish 
colonies.  As  said  by  Sehor  Augustin  Correa  Bravo,  one  of  the  lead- 
in<2:  jurists  of  Chile,  in  his  Coniinentaries  on  tlie  Law  of  INTunicipal 
Organization : 

In  Chile,  as  in  all  the  old  Spanish  colonies,  the  commune  was  unknown  vnitil 
estaltlished  by  law.  From  the  earliest  period  of  the  conquest  the  system  of 
encomlcndas  prevailed  in  our  country,  by  virtue  of  which  the  conquerors  di- 
vided among  themselves  the  land  and  the  people  inhabiting  it,  thert'l)y  making 
impossible  those  groupings  of  small  proprietors  and  of  local  interests  which 
elsewhere  formed  the  base  or  were  the  actuating  cause  of  the  nuniicipality. 
Nor  was  the  period  of  political  and  social  reconstruction  which  followed  In- 
dependence the  most  appropriate  for  promoting  the  organization  of  the  com- 
mune, and  the  Isolated  efforts  made  in  this  direction  were  unfruitful.  The 
habits  and  unprogressive  customs  of  the  colonial  period  continued  under  the 
new  regime. 

The  first  law  in  Chile  having  to  do  with  the  organization  and  at- 
tributes of  municipalities  was  promulgated  November  8,  1854,  and 
this  law  was  enacted  for  the  express  purpose  of  bolstering  the  system 
of  administrative  centralization  against  which  complaints  were  more 
or  less  openly  made.  By  virtue  of  this  law  all  municipal  services 
were  under  the  innnediate  direction  of  intendentes  and  governors, 
the  immediate  agents  of  the  President  of  the  Republic.  The  munici- 
pal councils  which  had  been  provided  for  in  the  constitution  (Art. 
113)  were  treated  as  purely  consult! ve. 

The  law  of  September  12,  1887,  gave  a  new  organization  to  munic- 
ipal affairs  and  stripped  the  intendentes  and  governors  of  a  part  of 
the  attributes  they  had  before  enjoj^ed.  This  law  marks  the  effective 
establishment  in  Chile  of  municipal  as  opposed  to  centralized  govern- 
ment of  cities. 

Following  this  law  came  the  present  organic  act,  the  law  of  De- 
cember 22,  1891,  which  is  the  charter  and  constitution  of  all  city 
government  in  Chile.  Article  2  of  this  act  provides  that  the  city 
of  Santiago  shall  be  divided  into  ten  sections  or  wards  {circumscrip- 
clones)  wdiich  shall  elect  each  three  miniicipal  coimcilors  who  to- 
gether shall  compose  the  municipal  council. 

The  three  councilors  in  each  ward  form  a  local  board  having  cer- 
tain local  powers  and  duties  mainly  in  connection  with  elections.. 

Municipal  councilors  are  chosen  by  popular  election.  They  must 
be  citizens  of  at  least  five  years"  residence  in  the  nuniicipality,  must 
have  no  interest  in  national  or  municipal  contracts  or  supplies,  and 
must  hold  no  other  public  office  or  commission.  The  council  from 
among  its  members  elects  three  alcaldes,  fixing  the  order  of  preced- 
ence amons'  the  three;  also  a  secretary  and  treasurer. 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.       443 

The  i)owers  and  jurisdiction  of  the  council  are  of  the  fullest.  The 
entire  government  of  the  cit}^  is  in  its  hands  subject  only  to  the  con- 
stitution and  the  organic  act  of  December,  1891. 

The  municipal  revenues  are  derived  from  a  personal  tax  levied  for 
school  purposes,  a  personal-property  tax,  a  tax  on  sale  of  liquors  and 
tobacco,  a  license  tax  on  industries  and  professions,  revenues  derived 
from  city  property,  and  an  annual  grant  from  Congress. 


m 


INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 

JOHN     BARREITT,     DIRECTOR 

FRANCISCO  J.  YANES.  SECRETARY 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 


HAVANA,  CUBA 


(Reprint  of  an  article  from  the'  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  April,  1909) 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1909 


INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 

JOHN     BARRELTT.     D  I  R  EL  C  T  O  R 
FRANCISCO  J.  YANES,  SECRETARY 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 


HAVANA,  CUBA 


(Reprint  of  an  article  from  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  April,  1 909) 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1909 


"M'l'Tmii'r^i'Ti  k  ¥        f\"r%f^  k  m't^-f 


%  ■% 


HAVANA. 

HAVANA,  the  "  Key  of  the  New  World  "  {Uave  del  yuevo 
Mnndo)^  as  reads  the  legend  on  its  coat  of  arms,  was 
founded  on  its  present  site  by  Diego  Velasquez  in  1519. 
Better  than  any  other  of  the  Latin-American  cities  is  it- 
known  to  foreigners.  Thousands,  not  only  citizens  of  the  United 
States  but  Europeans,  Avho  know  but  little,  if  anything,  of  the  capi- 
tals of  the  larger  Republics  of  Brazil,  Argentina,  or  Mexico,  are 
familiar  with  this  capital  city  of  the  Pearl  of  the  Antilles. 

They  know  the  beauty  of  its  situation,  the  quaintness  and  charm 
of  its  architecture,  and  the  geniality  of  its  welcome.  As  one  ap- 
proaches from  the  sea,  where  the  deep  blue  of  the  Gulf  changes  to 
the  pale  green  of  the  inshore  waters,  the  city  comes  into  view,  lying 
like  a  great  carpet  of  rich  oriental  colors  fringed  around  by  the  mot- 
tled dark  gi^een  of  the  hills  behind,  fading  away  to  right  and  left 
into  a  lighter  green  and  then  into  a  blue. 

The  entrance  to  the  harbor  is  a  narrow  cut  of  less  than  400  yards 
in  an  almost  straight  shore  line.  The  city,  with  its  yellow  and  white 
houses  with  red-tiled  roofs,  lies  to  the  right  of  the  entrance.  On  the 
left  and  jutting  out  a  little  into  the  Gulf  is  the  picturesque  light-house 
and  fortifications  of  the  Moro.  On  the  right,  at  the  city's  extreme 
point,  is  the  fort  of  La  Punta.  The  harbor  within  the  entrance  is  a 
roughly  shaped  quadrangle  over  2  miles  wide.  On  the  harbor  front 
is  I^a  Fuerza,  the  old  stronghold  of  the  city. 

The  architecture  of  Havana  is  heavy  and  massive.  Even  to  one 
accustomed  to  the  Spanish-American  type  the  houses  of  Havana 
seem  remarkably  solid  and  heavy.  The  building  material  is  a  pecul- 
iar loose-textured  seashell  conglomerate  of  a  glaring  white  color 
called  cantera.  It  is  similar  to  the  coquina  of  St.  Augustine,  in 
Florida,  but  heavier  and  more  compact.  It  is  hewn  out  with  axes 
and  sawed  into  great  blocks.  After  exposure  to  the  air  it  becomes 
harder.  The  Avails  in  Havana  are  nearly  always  plastered  or  stuc- 
cckmI.  variously  colored.  The  colors  are  yellow,  white,  light  gray, 
U14 


76021— Bull.  4—09 


616      INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

grayish  blue,  and  deep  red.  The  surfaces  are  frequently  very  ornate 
with  frescoing,  moldings,  and  imitated  jointings.  In  the  older  parts 
of  the  city  are  the  j^rojecting  ]\Ioorish  gratings  covering  the  windows. 

The  President's  palace,  formerly  the  home  of  the  governor-gen- 
eral, is  one  of  the  finest  buildings  in  the  city.  It  was  built  in  1834 
and  occupies  an  entire  block  on  the  Plaza  de  Armas  and  near  the  har- 
bor front.  The  joalace  contains  the  maj^or's  office  and  the  hall  of  the 
cit}^  council  and  other  offices  of  the  city  government,  as  well  as  the 
residence  apartments  of  the  President. 

The  cathedral,  a  block  aAvay  from  the  palace,  is  one  of  the  show 
buildings  of  Havana.  It  was  built  in  1701  and  occuj^ies  the  site  of  an 
older  church.     Other  of  the  more  important  churches  are  San  Au- 


THE  NEW  I'UODUCE  EXCHANGE  BUILDING   IX  THE  (TTY  OF  HAVAXA- 
:i;600,000  GOLD  AND  WAS  OPENED  IN  MARCH,  1909. 


IT  COST 


gustin,  built  in  IGOS,  and  now  the  oldest  church  in  the  city.  Santa 
Catalina,  built  in  1G08,  and  Santo  Domingo,  formerly  a  monastery 
of  the  dominican  fathers.  La  ISIerced,  the  largest,  Avealthiest,  and 
most  aristocratic  church,  was  built  in  1716  and  rebuilt  in  1792.  Its 
interior  is  richly  decorated.  El  Templete,  the  memorial  chapel,  built 
on  the  spot,  under  a  ceiba  tree,  Avhere  the  first  mass  Avas  said  by  the 
priests  accompanying  Diego  de  Valas(]uez  in  1519,  was  dedicated  in 
1828. 

The  most  interesting  points  in  Havana  nie  tlie  ])aiks  and  i>aseos. 
The  three  principal  parks  are:  Columbus  Park,  now  an  attractive 
pleasure  place,  with  fountains  playing  among  tropical  plants  and 
flowers;  La  India  I*ark,  containing  the  famous  statue  of  the  Indian 


op  o 

Pro  o 
?3  3 


°V 


CP  O 

pop 

<^^>P 


(s  ; 


l?S. 


«    -!    O 


P  ir 
P  - 


<    H 


re  -1  <:    T 


^~-    O 


2=^ 


P  §• 

p  s 

O  E3 


re  H 
o  2" 


618       INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS, 

woman  after  which  the  park  is  named,  and  Central  Park,  surrounded 
by  dubs  and  hotels,  the  place  of  concerts  and  the  center  of  Havana's 
social  life. 

The  first  comprehensive  municipal  law  in  Cuba  was  the  royal 
decree  of  July  27,  1859. 

]\lunicipalities  under  the  operation  of  this  law  were  governed  by 
a  board  of  aldermen,  presided  over  by  a  president  who,  in  Havana, 
was  generally  the  civil  governor  of  the  province.  Theoretically  the 
board  was  autocratic  in  character,  but  the  real  power  rested  with 
the  president.     The  board,  elected  by  popular  suffrage  of  all  quali- 


( Miller  photo.) 

RED  OR  THRONE  ROOM  OF  THE  PALACE.  HAVANA. 

This  is  one  of  the  three  rooms  which  comprise  the  State  reception  rooms,  and  Senora  Gomez,  the 
President'.swife,  utilizes  it  in  receiving  lier  guests.  Among  the  crimson  upholstered  chairs 
in  the  room  is  one  which  is  surmounted  by  a  gilt  crown.  It  was  formerly  the  throne  chair, 
and  stood  on  a  dais  in  this  room.    Back  of  the  throne  room  is  the  Palace  chapel. 

ficd  voters,  was,  in  effect,  a  council  of  advisers  to  the  president,  regis- 
tering as  ordinances  such  laws  as  he,  acting  under  the  Governor- 
(Jeneral  of  Cuba,  thought  proper  to  enact.  Differing  with  the  tlieory 
in  vogue  in  the  United  States,  that  legislative  and  executive  fiuulions 
oiiglit  to  be  exercised  by  different  in.strumentalities,  in  Cuba  these 
functions  were  joined  in  the  same  body.  'Vhe  board,  and  that  Avas 
to  say  its  president,  was  both  legislature  and  executive  of  the  city. 

Subsequent  modifications  of  the  law.  until  recently,  did  not  change 
this  essential  feature  thereof. 


(Miller  Photo.) 


INTERIOR   OF  THE   COLUMBUS  CATHEDRAL,    HAVANA. 


The  Cathedral  has  long  been  popularly  known  as  the  Columbus  Cathedral,  but  the  name  is 
"Cathedral  of  the  Virgin  Mary  of  the  Immaeulate  Conception,"  and  it  was  erected  on  the 
site  of  another  church  by  the  Jesuits  in  1704.  The  interior  walls  are  finished  in  dark 
marbles,  the  columns  of  highly  jiolished  mahogany,  with  gilt-bronze  capitals,  the  choir 
stalls  of  mahogany,  beautifully  carved.  The  high  altar  is  of  Carrara  marble.  The  walls 
and  ceiling  contain  many  beautiful  paintings,  and  the  Cathedral  is  said  to  coittain  a  small 
painting  by  Murillo,  representing  the  Pope  and  the  Cardinals  celebrating  mass  prepara- 
tory to  the  sailing  of  Columbus. 


620       INTERN ATTOXAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMEPJCAN    REPUBLTCS. 

By  the  royal  decree  of  November  :25.  18G3.  the  superior  civil  gov- 
ernment of  Havana  was  created.  In  effect  the  decree  was  an  amj^lifi- 
cation  of  the  law  of  1859.  The  decree  of  January  30,  18GG,  changed 
certain  functions  of  the  board  and  regulated  the  position  of  the  civil 
governor  in  his  double  capacity  of  governor  of  the  province  and 
president  of  the  board. 

The  Constitution  of  Spain,  dated  July  2,  1876,  was  not  fully  pro- 
claimed in  Cuba  until  April  7,  1881,  but  the  organic  municipal  law 
of  Spain  was  extended  to  the  island  by  royal  decree  of  October  2, 1877. 
Some  modifications  in  the  Spanish  law  were  made  as  applicable 
especially  to  Cuba.     These  modifications  referred  to  the  number  of 


(Miller  pliotd. ) 


LETTER  CARRIERS  IN  HAVANA. 


The  mail  service  in  Cuba  is  conrlnrted  by  the  Department  of  Commniiicntions,  ■which  alfo  has 
under  its  supervision  the  tfk'Kraph  system  of  the  Government.  There  isfrte  delivery  of  mail 
in  the  hirger  cities.  The  Department  also  conducts  a  parcels-post  system  for  the  carrying  of 
small  packages  through  the  mails. 

aldermen  of  each  board  and  to  the  powers  of  the  Governor-General 
in  appointing  mayors.  Under  it  each  mayor  was  ai)i)ointed  by  the 
(iovernor-General  from  three  nominees  presented  by  the  board; 
although  the  Governor-General  might,  if  he  saw  fit,  disregard  the 
li.st  furnished  by  the  board.  Assistant  mayors  were  appointed  in  the 
same  manner,  except  tliat  the  ap})()int('r  must  l)e  a  meml)er  of  the 
board. 

The  refoiiu  law  of  ]March  15,  1805.  proclaimed  on  the  23d  of  that 
month,  was  a  moie  or  less  sul:)stantial  gain  for  the  democratic  idea, 
although  the  essential  slructuiv  of  S})anish  municipal  organization 
and  government  was  not  changed  thereby.     I>y  virtue  of  this  law 


622       INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

each  board  of  aldermen  elected  one  of  its  members  as  maj^or.  The 
Governor-General  might,  after  a  hearing,  remove  the  mayor  and  make 
a  new  appointment,  but  the  new  mayor  could  be  chosen  only  from 
among  the  members  of  the  board.  In  addition  to  their  functions 
as  executive  officers  of  the  boards  the  mayors  were  representatives 
and  delegates  of  the  Governor-General. 

The  Governor-General  had  always  possessed  the  power  to  sta}'  any 
ordinance  of  the  board,  in  effect  to  veto  it.  B}^  the  terms  of  the 
reform  law  this  power  was  limited.  If  there  were  charges  of  cor- 
ruption in  the  passage  of  the  ordinance,  the  Governor-General  laid 
the  matter  before  the  criminal  court.  If,  however,  the  contention 
was  that  the  board  had  exceeded  its  powers  or  had  infringed  the 
organic  law,  the  matter  was  for  the  consideration  of  the  provincial 
governor  and  assembly.  In  the  latter  case,  provincial  governors  might 
themselves  take  the  initiative  for  the  stay  of  an  ordinance  claimed  to 
be  ultra  vires. 

In  matters  of  revenue  and  taxation  an  appeal  lay  from  the  action 
of  the  municipal  board  to  the  provincial  assembly,  and  a  final  appeal 
for  the  assembly  to  the  council  of  administration  presided  over  by  the 
Governor-General.  This  council  consisted  of  30  members,  one  half  of 
whom  were  elected. 

Throughout  the  whole  period  of  Cuba's  colonial  histor}^  the  real 
government  of  the  municipalities  of  the  island,  not  only  on  the  ad- 
ministrative side  but  also  on  the  deliberative  or  legislative  side,  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  Governor-General  of  Cuba,  acting  through 
agencies  directly  responsible  to  him  and  dependent  on  him. 

The  present  constitution  of  the  Republic  of  Cuba  of  February  21, 
1901,  fundamentally  changes  the  underlying  theory  of  municipal 
government  in  the  island  and  approaches  somewhat  the  practice  in 
the  United  States.  In  particular,  legislative  and  executive  functions 
are  separated.  The  former  are  exercised  by  municipal  councils 
elected  by  direct  vote  of  all  qualified  voters,  and  the  latter  by  mayors, 
or  as  they  are  called  in  Spanish-speaking  countries  alcaldes,  elected 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  councils.  B}^  the  provisions  of  the  con- 
stitution (articles  103  to  113)  the  municii:)al  council  has  legislative 
control  of  all  matters  relating  exclusivelv  to  the  municipal  district. 
It  prepares  budgets  of  expenses  and  provides  the  revenues  to  meet 
the  same.  It  contracts  loans  and  votes  the  necessary  revenues.  It 
appoints  and  removes  municipal  employees.  The  alcalde  has  the 
I'ight  of  veto  as  to  the  resolutions  of  the  council,  but  the  resolution, 
after  deliberation  thereon,  may  be  passed  over  the  alcalde's  veto  and 
become  effective  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  council. 

Resolutions  of  nmnicipal  councils  may  be  suspended  by  the  alcalde, 
the  provincial  governor,  or  the  I'resident  of  the  Republic  whenever, 


624       INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

ill  their  jiulo-ment,  these  are  contrary  to  the  constitution,  treaties,  or 
the  general  hiw.  The  right  to  take  cognizance  and  pass  upon  claims 
arising  out  of  such  suspensions  is  reserved  to  the  courts. 

Alcaldes  have  general  administrative  powers  and  appoint  and 
remove  the  emploj'ees  of  their  own  office. 

The  present  organic  municipal  law,  enacted  in  pursuance  of  the 
constitution  was  decreed  on  May  19,  1908,  to  go  into  effect  upon  the 
talving  of  office  by  the  alcaldes  and  councilmen  elected  under  the 
electoral  huv  of  April  1,  1908.  The  law  is  the  work  of  a  special 
commission  appointed  to  draft  the  same,  composed  of  Messrs.  E.  H. 
Croavder,  Rafael  Montoro,  Felipe  G.  Sarrain,  Juan  Gualberto 
Gomez,  Blanton  Winship,  Miguel  F.  Viondi,  F.  Carrera  Justiz, 
M.  M.  CoRONADo,  Mario  G.  Kohly,  Otto  Schoenrich,  Erasmo 
Regueiferos,  and  Alfredo  Zayas. 

This  commission  was  appointed  on  December  24,  1906,  and  its 
report  embodying  the  first  draft  of  the  law  Avas  published  on  Janu- 
ary 27,  1908,  and  distributed  to  all  officials,  political  parties,  news- 
papers, and  private  persons  requesting  the  same,  inviting  them  with- 
in thirty  days  to  submit  any  criticisms  and  objections  to  the  draft 
that  they  might  deem  proper.  These  criticisms  and  objections  were 
considered  by  the  commission  and  a  final  draft  of  the  law  was  sub- 
mitted on  May  8,  1908.  This  draft  was  in  the  form  as  finally  de- 
creed eleven  days  later  and  first  published  in  the  Gaceta  Oficial  for 
May  29. 

The  new  law  is  most  comprehensive.  It  recognizes  full}'^  the  con- 
stitutional division  of  legislative  and  executive  powers,  and  also  the 
dual  capacity  of  municipal  government,  acting  locally,  and  as 
auxiliary  to  the  central  power  of  the  state;  but  it  does  not  confuse 
these  last  two  functions  as  was  the  case  under  the  old  colonial  laws. 

Municipalities  are  divided  into  three  classes:  First,  those  having 
a  popuhition  of  over  100.000  inhabitants;  second,  those  having  from 
20,000  to  100,000;  third,  those  having  20,000  or  less. 

Havana,  of  course,  is  a  city  of  the  first  class.  Its  municipal  council 
consists  of  27  members  elected  for  four  years,  one-half  alternately 
each  two  years.  Councilmen  serve  without  pay  and  can  not  be  re- 
moved except  after  final  judgment  of  a  court  of  competent  jurisdic- 
tion convicting  them  of  some  offense  which  by  the  law  is  a  disquali- 
fication to  holding  public  oflice.  The  officers  of  the  council,  a  presi- 
dent, vice-president,  and  two  secretaries,  are  chosen  every  two  j'ears 
following  the  municii)al  elections.  Peiinanent  and  special  com- 
mittees are  chosen  from  among  the  couiu-iliiieii,  and  to  any  of  these 
coiiiniittecs,  except  the  finance  coiiiiiiittee  and  the  tax  coiniiiittee.  are 
added  by  vote  of  the  council  an  e(jual  number  of  j)rivate  citizens, 
one-half  of  Avliom  may  be  foreigners,  as  associate  members  having 


3^^ 


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a:    =£; 


CO     i  =  -s 


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628       INTERNATIONAL   BUEEAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS, 

the  same  right  to  vote  on  committee  matters  as  have  the  council 
members. 

Mayors  or  alcaldes  are  elected  for  four  years  and  are  paid  a  salary. 
In  the  absence  or  disability  of  the  mayor  the  president  of  the  council 
acts  in  his  stead.  The  mayor  is  the  head  of  the  civil  administration 
of  the  city  and  is  assisted  in  minor  affairs  by  ward  or  barrio  mayors 
elected  by  the  municipal  council.  These  l)arri()  mayors  are  exceed- 
ingly important  officials  and  perform  functions  elsewhere  exercised 
by  numerous  bureaus  and  officials.  In  Havana  they  are  the  direct 
medium  of  communication  between  the  inhabitants  of  their  respec- 
tive barrios  and  the  higher  authorities.  They  keep  a  register  of 
licenses,  enforce  orders  and  regulations,  and  report  violations  of  the 
same.  They  are  charged  with  the  care  of  streets  and  highways  and 
of  the  poor.  They  issue  j^ermits  for  burial  of  jDaupers  and  tickets 
for  medical  attendance  to  the  needy.  They  overlook  all  public  serv- 
ices, reporting  interruptions  and  accidents  and  also  the  enforcement 
of  the  truant  laws  for  children  of  school  age.  On  occasions  they  may 
even  act  as  collectors  of  taxes. 

An  important  provision  of  the  new  law^  is  that  limiting  the  pro- 
portion of  expenditures  for  municipal  government  which  may  be 
allotted  as  salaries  to  the  personnel  of  the  administration.  This  lim- 
itation runs  from  50  per  cent  in  small  towns,  having  a  budget  not 
exceeding  $10,000,  down  to  10  per  cent  where  the  budget  is  from 
$500,000  to  $1,000,000,  and  9  per  cent  where  it  is  over  $1,000,000, 

In  no  case  can  expenditures  exceed  revenues. 

Loans  can  not  be  contracted  except  for  public  works  or  public 
services  upon  special  resolution  of  the  municipal  council  and  ap- 
I^roved  by  a  popular  vote  of  tAvo-thirds  of  the  voters. 


;m 


INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  REPUBUCS 

JOHN     BARRXTT.     DIRE:.CT0R 

FRANQSCO  J.  YANES.  SECRETARY 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 


MEXICO  CITY 


(Reprint  of  an  artide  from  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  February,  1 909) 


WASHINGTON.  D.  C. 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1909 


•f 


INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 

JOHN     BARRELTT,     D  I  R  E.  C  T  O  R 
FRANCISCO  J.  YANES,  SECRETARY 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 


MEXICO  CITY 


(Reprint  of  an  article  from  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  February,  1 909) 


WASHINGTON.  D.  C. 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1909 


^1  I.  J  I 


i%i 


,^r%,.M,. 


*       0 


THE  CITY  OF  MEXICO. 

THE  IDEA  of  a  Federal  District  not  included  -within  the  area 
or  jurisdiction  of  any  of  the  States  forming  the  Union, 
which  district  is  set  apart  as  the  seat  of  the  National  Gov- 
ernment, is  fundamental  in  each  of  the  five  Republics  of 
North  and  South  America  whose  form  of  government  is  that  of  a 
federal  union  of  independent  States. 


^^:!^-^..^^ 


1110.110-1 


THE  NATIONAL  PALACE,  CITY  OF  MEXICO. 

feet  loiif,'.  faces  the  east  .«ifle  of  tlie  iiiiiiil  pliiza. 


The 


This  tnrretcd  mill  liastiiiiieil  ciIHh  ..    .    ...  ,-      .  , 

fiir  eornerciuitain-  I  he  executive  dtliees.  Besides  housing  other  depiirlinenlal  olliees.  the 
buildiiiK  pmviiles  eli.iinlM  is  lor  Ihe  Xatioiuil  Congress  and  the  Ci'iitral  Meteorolcvsieal 
Observatory.  The  palaee  occupies  tlie  site  of  Cortez's  residence  during  the  early  days  of  the 
conquest,  and  was  commenced  in  1092. 

These  five  Republics,  to  give  them  their  full  designations,  arc  the 
United  States  of  America,  the  TTnited  Mexican  States,  the  Argentine 
Nation,  the  United  States  of  Brazil,  antl  the  United  States  of  Vene- 
zuehi.  The  capital  cities  of  Washington,  Mexico,  Buenos  Aires, 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  Caracas  arc  each  k)cated  in  a  Federal  District 
208 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATION   IN   LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.       209 

under  direct  Federal  control.  They  are  all  small  in  area,  although 
the  District  of  Columbia  is  by  far  the  smallest  of  the  five. 

The  Mexican  Federal  District  has  a  population  of  576,000,  and  lies 
to  the  southeast  of  the  Valley  of  :Mexico  and  is  irregular  in  shape. 
At  its  greatest  length  it  measures  about  30  miles  and  at  its  greatest 
breadth  about  25  miles.  Its  area  is  about  578  square  miles  (1,4C3.75 
square  kilometers). 

This  is  more  than  eight  times  the  size  of  the  District  of  Columbia, 
less  than  half  the  size  of  Rhode  Island,  and  one  and  three-fourths 
the  size  of  greater  New  York. 


A  HOLIDAY  PROCESSION  IN  MEXICO  CITY. 

The  two  great  national  holidays  of  Mexico  are  May  5  and  September  16,  the  former  commem- 
orating the  victory  over  the  French  at  Puebhi  in  1862,  and  the  latter  the  patriot  uprising  under 
Hidalgo  in  1810,  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  Republic. 

For  purposes  of  administration  the  ]Mexican  Federal  District  is 
divided  into  13  municipalities— Mexico,  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Atz- 
capotzalco,  Tacuba.  Tacubaya,  :Mixcoac,  Cuajimalpa,  San  Angel, 
Cogoacan,  Tlalpam,  Xochimilco,  Milpa  Alta,  and  Ixtapalapa. 

The  first  includes  the  City  of  Mexico  and  its  immediate  suburbs, 
and  the  remaining  12  the  surrounding  town,  villages,  and  agricul- 
tural centers.  About  one-half  of  the  population  in  the  district  out- 
side of  the  City  of  Mexico  is  of  Indian  origin,  and  is  engaged  in 
agriculture. 


MUNICIPAL   ORGAXIZATION   IX   LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.       211 

Prior  to  1003  the  form  of  government  in  the  Federal  District  Avas 
somewhat  simihir  to  the  territorial  government  in  force  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  about  thirty-odd  years  ago. 

The  organic  act  for  the  government  of  the  Federal  District  was 
approved  March  26, 1903,  and  went  into  effect  July  1  of  the  same  year. 

Under  its  provisions  the  immediate  government  of  the  District  is 
in  the  hands  of  three  officials  who,  together,  compose  the  Superior 
Council  of  District  Government.  These  officials  are  the  Governor  of 
the  Federal  District,  the  President  of  the  Superior  Health  Board,  and 
the  Director-General  of  Public  "Works. 

This  form  of  government  bears  a  marked  resemblance  to  that  at 
present  in  force  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  This  resemblance  is, 
however,  more  superficial  tlian  real. 


(Photo  by  Waite,  Mexico  City.) 

NEW  POST-OFFICE,  CITY  OF  MEXICO. 

The  cornerstone  of  this  building  was  laid  by  President  Diaz  on  September  14,  ]90'2,  and  it  was  opened 
to  the  public  in  1907.  The  cost  was  SI. 500, 000  and  it  was  erected  in  accordance  with  the  plans  of 
the  Italian  architect,  Adamo  Boari.  The  post-office  occupies  a  central  location,  and  covers  an  area 
of  about  40,000  square  feet. 

In  the  District  of  Columbia  the  residents  have  no  vote  upon  any 
question  nor  any  voice  whatever  in  the  government,  while  in  the 
Mexican  Federal  District  they  elect  many  of  the  minor  officials  and 
have  considerable  weight  in  the  management  of  local  affairs.  In  the 
District  of  Columbia  the  final  determination  of  affairs  of  consequence 
is  in  the  Senate  and  House  Committees  on  the  District,  while  in 
Mexico  it  is  with  the  President  of  the  Eepublic.  The  organic  act, 
article  19,  says : 

The  political  government  and  municipal  administrative  of  the  District  shall 
be  in  charge  of  the  Kxacutive  of  the  fnion,  through  three  officials,  who  shall  be 
dependent  upon  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  etc. 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATION   IN   LATIN-AMERICAN   CAPITALS,       213 


m^ 


In  the  District  of  Colunibia  all  adiuinistration  is  by  the  three 
Commissioners  acting  jointly  or  by  majority  of  the  three.  As  a 
matter  of  convenience,  the 
Commissioners  do  apportion 
the  several  departments 
among-  themselves,  and  one 
of  these  is  especially  ap- 
pointed as  an  engineer  in 
charge  of  streets,  buildings, 
etc.,  yet  in  theory  it  is  the 
board  and  not  the  individual 
m  e  m  b  e  r  which  acts.  In 
Mexico  each  of  the  three 
officials  is  for  the  most  part 
independent  and  alone  re- 
sponsible in  his  own  depart- 
ment. This  responsibility  is 
limited  by  the  right  of  the 
Superior  Council — that  is,  of 
the  three  officials  acting  to- 
gether— '*  to  revise,  confirm- 
ing, reforming,  or  revoking 
the  judgments  of  each  one  of 
the  members  of  the  Council, 
w^ienever  these  judgments 
are  called  in  question."  The 
other  duties  of  the  Superior 
Council  are  advisory  merely. 
It  may  propose  changes  in 
the  District  law  or  adminis- 
tration, rules  for  the  govern- 
ment and  organization  of 
officers  and  public  services. 
It  may  suggest  improvements 
in  works  of  public  utility, 
such  as  water  supply,  drain- 
age, sanitation,  opening  or 
widening  streets,  or  the  crea- 
tion of  special  commissions 
to  study  and  report  upon 
such  matters.  The  Council 
has  a  general  supervision  of 
the  making  of  contracts  for 
public  works,  but  all  such 
contracts  must  be  submitted  for  final  approval  to  the  higher 
authority. 


(Photo  by  Waite,  Mexico  City. ) 

LETTER  CARRIER,  MEXICO  CITY. 

In  the  fiscal  year  of  1908  over  195,000,000  pieces  of  mail 
were  handled  by  the  Mexican  post-office  department. 


214      INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  Governor  of  the  District,  the  Director-General  of  Public 
"Works,  and  the  president  of  the  Superior  Health  Board  is  each  the 
head  of  his  own  department  and  responsible  for  its  work,  but  the 
subordinate  officers  and  employees  are  appointed  by  the  Chief  Execu- 
tive of  the  IJepublic.  The  three  heads  must  each  be  a  Mexican  citi- 
zen, more  than  25  years  old,  and  not  an  ecclesiastic. 

The  Governor  of  the  District  is  the  chief  political  authority  in 
the  District.  He  makes  public  and  enforces  all  laws,  decrees,  and 
rules  emanating  from  higher  authority.  He  has  special  charge  of 
the  police  and  fire  department,  imposition  of  penalties  for  violation 
of  ordinances,  penal  establishment,  civic  festivities,  public  diver- 
sions, plaj^s,  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors,  hotels  and  restaurants,  street 
cars  and  cabs,  the  civil  register,  and  of  the  inspection  of  weights  and 
measures. 

The  Director-General  of  Public  AYorks  has  special  charge  of  the 
water  supply,  streets  and  roads,  parks,  monuments,  municipal  light- 
ing, drainage  and  street  cleaning,  public  buildings  not  under  direct 
Federal  control,  cemeteries,  construction,  repair  and  maintenance  of 
slaughterhouses  and  markets,  inspection  of  building  operations,  and 
of  woods,  lands,  commons,  and  other  communal  property. 

The  president  of  the  Superior  Board  of  Health  has  charge  of  all 
sanitary  works  as  provided  by  the  sanitar}^  code,  and,  in  addition,  of 
general  sanitary  inspection,  especially  of  the  hygienic  and  sanitary 
condition  of  slaughterhouses,  markets,  and  cemeteries,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  meats  from  other  sections. 

The  popular  element  in  government  is  preserved  in  the  Federal 
District  through  the  preservation  of  the  ayuntamientos  or  town 
councils.  Each  of  the  13  municipalities  into  which  the  District  is 
divided  has  its  own  ayuntamiento,  composed  of  councilors  elected  by 
popular  vote  for  four  years.  To  be  a  councilor  one  must  be  a  Mexi- 
can citizen,  resident  within  the  municipality,  in  full  enjoyment  of 
civil  and  political  rights,  more  than  25  years  of  age,  and  not  an 
ecclesiastic. 

The  ayuntamiento  of  the  municipality  of  the  city  of  Mexico  is 
composed  of  21  members,  of  Tacubaya  11,  and  of  each  of  the  other 
nnuiicipalities  7.  Each  ayuntamiento  elects  from  among  its  members 
a  president  and  a  vice-president  wlio  hold  office  for  two  years. 

The  law  requires  that  the  ayuntamiento  shall  be  consulted  by  tho 
Ministry  of  the  Interior,  the  Governor  of  the  District,  the  director- 
general  of  public  works,  and  the  president  of  the  heahh  board,  as  the 
case  may  be,  upon  matters  of  general  imi)()rtance  in  the  nninicipality, 
such  as  water  sui)ply  and  distribution.  h)cal  sanitary  work,  establish- 
ment of  new  settlements,  exploitation  or  sale  of  woods,  lands,  and 
commons.  They  must  also  be  consulted  as  to  contracts  for  the  execu- 
tion of  any  of  these  works  and  as  to  all  other  contracts  of  a  municipal 


216       TNTERXATIOXAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


character  having  a  (hiration  of  five  years  or  more,  or  which  call  for  a 
total  exi^enditure  of  100.000  pesos  ($50,000)  or  more,  or  an  annual 
expenditure  of  25,000  j^csos  ($12,500). 

Tn  all  these  matters  the  ayuntamientos  have  by  a  two-thirds  vote  the 
right  of  veto.  The  effect  of  this  veto  is  to  suspend  for  four  months 
the  project  or  contract  in  question.  At  the  end  of  the  four  months  if 
the  ayuntamiento  still  opposes  the  proposition  by  a  vote  of  three- 
fourths  of  its  members,  the  matter  is  submitted  to  the  President  of 
the  Republic  for  final  solution. 


(Photo  by  Waite,  Mexico  City.) 

YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION,  MEXICO  CITY. 

The  building  of  this  world-wide  association  is  located  on  Pnente  de  Alvarado  street,  near  the  Central 
Railway  Station,  and  is  tlie  propertv  of  the  Mexican  branch  of  the  society.  Throughout  the  Repub- 
lic there  are  6  organizations,  witli  -i  paid  secretaries  and  about  1,.500  members.  The  association  has 
railroad  branches  and  educational  departments  for  boys  and  men. 

^Mexico  City  has  353  public  schools  maintained  at  government 
expense  and  nearly  200  private  institutions  of  learning.  Of  the 
former,  13  are  professional  and  technical  institutes. 

The  climate  of  Mexico  is  delightful.  In  summer  the  maximum 
temperature  reached  is  not  higher  than  80°  F.  This  occurs  in  April 
and  May  and  from  2  to  4  o'clock  in  the  aiternoon.  The  mornings  and 
evenings  are  cool,  the  thermometer  sometimes  falling  to  50°.  The 
coldest  months  are  generally  November  and  December,  where  for  a 
few  hours  the  thermometer  may  fall  within  five  or  six  degrees  of 
freezing.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  summer  months  is  about  05°, 
and  for  the  winter  months  54°.  The  annual  variations  for  the  several 
seasons  is  comparatively  small,  but  the  daily  variation  is  often  con- 
siderable, the  temperature  rising  or  falling  twenty  or  more  degrees 
in  a  few  hours. 


■gjtKsrs  4y-*'  I!  ■■■it»'< 


68800— Bull.  2— 09- 


218      INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  Mexican  cai^ital  is  becoming  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  of 
the  world,  but  it  is  a  city  in  process  of  being  made  over.  Unlike 
Buenos  Aires  or  Chicago,  which  are  new,  Mexico  City  is  very  old. 
The  work  of  improvement  is  the  work  of  tearing  down  and  rebuild- 
ing. This  work  goes  on  constantly  and  always  to  fit  in  with  a  general 
large  plan,  Avhich  looks  to  the  whole  and  not  to  the  particular. 

An  English  writer,  Mr.  Percy  Martin,  says  of  it : 

The  aspect  of  the  city  to-day  is  suggestive  of  one-half  being  pulled  down  while 
the  other  half  is  being  built  up.  I>ut  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  what  it  will 
be  when  the  destruction  stage  has  ceased  and  the  construction  is  complete. 
Mexico  will  be  a  beautiful  city  in  every  respect — worthy  of  the  superb  climate 
with  which  the  country  is  blessed,  worthy  of  the  enterprising  Government  which 
is  directing  affairs,  and  with  plenty  to  show  for  the  millions  which  are  being 
expended  upon  its  adornment.  Already  sufficient  has  been  effected  to  evince 
that  ^lexico  City  will  be  more  beautiful  than  Paris,  more  admirably  planned 
than  Vienna,  and  a  distinct  improvement  upon  Berlin. 

Situated  in  a  valley,  with  mountains  on  all  sides,  the  location  is 
ideal.  To  the  stranger  the  most  beautiful  construction  in  the  City  of 
Mexico  is  the  Paseo  de  la  Reforma,  or  the  Paseo,  as  it  is  usually 
called.  This  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  handsomest  driveways  in 
the  world,  and  in  a  few  years  Avill  be  incomparably  finer  than  the 
Prater,  Tenter  den  Linden,  the  Champs  Elysees,  or  the  Xevsky  Pros- 
pect, the  better-known  show  wa^'s  of  Vienna,  Berlin,  Paris,  and  St. 
Petersburg.  It  extends,  over  two  and  a  half  miles  in  length,  from  the 
center  of  the  residential  part  of  the  city  to  the  foot  of  Chapultepec. 

The  carriage  way  is  broad,  shaded  b}'  tAvo  rows  of  trees  on  each  side, 
between  which  is  a  wide  promenade.  At  intervals  the  Paseo  expands 
into  a  glor'ieta^  a  small  circular  park  400  feet  in  diameter,  around 
which  are  handsomely  carved  stone  benches.  In  the  center  of  the 
glonetas  are  well-kept  and  beautiful  flower  beds.  In  the  first  glorieta 
within  the  city  stands  the  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  Charles  IV 
of  Spain,  said  to  be  the  largest  bronze  in  the  world. 

There  are  also  colossal  statues  of  Columbus  and  of  Cuauhtemoc 
and  Juarez.  In  fact,  each  glorieta  will  have  several  such  statues  of 
Mexican  celebrities,  which  Avill  be  presented  by  the  several  Mexican 
States. 

The  statue  of  Charles  IV  was  first  placed  in  1804  on  its  pedestal  in 
the  Plaza  ]Mayor,  where  it  remained  until  18*24,  when  it  was  removed 
to  the  i)aiio  of  the  university,  Avhence  it  was  moved  to  its  present  site. 
It  is  a  solid  bronze,  15  feet  1)  inches  high,  weighing  over  30  tons. 
The  King  is  dressed  in  royal  robes,  wearing  on  his  head  a  wreath  of 
laurel  and  holding  in  his  right  hand  the  scepter.  The  horse  is  in 
the  act  of  walking,  the  left  fore  foot  and  right  hind  foot  being  raised. 
14ie  .sculptor  was  ]Maxiel  Tolsa. 

The  statue  of  Coliinibiis  was  one  of  the  first  monuments  erected  on 
the  continent  he  discovered,  and  one  of  the  handsomest.     lie  stands 


220      INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


drawing  aside  the  veil  which  concealed  the  Xew  AVorhL  The  base  is 
ornamented  by  basso-relievos  picturing  incidents  in  the  life  of  the 
Great  Admiral,  and  at  the  four  corners  stand  life-size  figures  in  bronze 
of  Padre  Marchena  of  La  Rabida,  Padre  Fray,  Diego  Dehesa,  Fray 
Pedro  de  Gante.  and  Fray  Bartoleme  de  las  Casas. 

The  statue  of  Cuauhtemoc  represents  the  plumed  and  feathered 
warrior  standing  upright  in  the  act  of  drawing  an  arrow  from  his 
quiver. 


STATUE  OF  CUAUHTEMOC,  CITY  OF  MEXICO. 

The  beautiful  statue  of  Cuauhtemoc,  the  last  emperor  of  the  Aztecs,  was  designed  by  Fnnicisco 
Jimenez,  a  Mexican  artist,  and  erected  in  the  Paseo  de  la  Refornia  at  a  cost  of  $40,000.  On 
each  anniversarv  of  its  dedication,  August  21,  celebrations  are  held  at  tlie  base  of  the  monu- 
ment, addres.ses "being  made  in  the  Aztec  language.  The  bronze  tigure  represents  the  well- 
poi.".ed  body  of  the  emperor  in  the  act  of  throwing  a  spear,  symbolic  of  his  refusjil  of  the  terms 
cf  TJeace  offered  by  Cortez. 

The  hill  of  Chapultepec  overlooking  the  city  is  said  to  have  been 
the  site  of  the  summer  palace  of  the  Montezumas.  After  the  con- 
quest the  Spanish  viceroys  built  on  the  cre^t  of  Ghapultepec  the  great 
castle  which  stands  to  this  day  and  is  the  summer  residence  of  Presi- 
dent Diaz.  Surrounding  the  castle  are  magnificent  cypress  Avoods, 
the  finest  grove  on  the  continent.  The  view  from  the  terrace  of  the 
castle  is  one  of  the  world's  famous  sights. 

Another  of  the  famous  sights  of  Mexico  is  the  Alameda,  a  park  of 
about  40  acres  extent.  This  was  in  old  times  an  Indian  market  and 
also  a  place  of  execution.     It  was  at  one  time  inclosed  by  a  high 


222      IXTEENATIOXAL   BUREAU    OF    THE   AMERICAX    REPUBLICS. 


BAS-RELIEF  ON  OXE  SIDE  OF  THE  STATUE  OF  CUAUHTEMOC. 

The  scene  depicts  the  torturing  of  the  Aztec  emperor,  Cuauhtemoc,  and  the  cacique  of  Tacuba, 
by  roasting-  their  feet  over  a  slow  fire,  in  order  to  force  them  to  reveal  to  the  Spanish  con- 
querors the  hiding  place  of  their  treasures.  The  cacique  could  not  conceal  his  sutTering,  at 
■which  the  emperor  rebuked  him  with  the  words:  "  Do  you  think,  then,  that  I  am  taking  my 
pleasure  in  my  bath?  " 


PALACE  OF  THE  PRESIDENT,  CHAPULTEPEC.  MKXico. 

This  historic  structure  is  situated  on  the  eastern  summit  of  Chnpnltepec  (hill  of  the  grasshop- 
pers) overlooking  the  valley  with  the  city  in  the  foreground  ana  the  snow-capj>ed  volcanoes  of 
Pf)pocatepetl  and  I.xtacciliuatl  in  tlic  rear.  A  fine  roadway  ascends  the  hill  to  the  castle, 
wliich  is  also  reached  by  an  elevator.  At  the  foot  of  the  hill  is  a  large  spring  that  forms  part 
of  tlie  water  sui>i>ly  of  the  capital.  In  the  surrounding  jiark  is  a  line  grove  of  ancient  moss- 
covered  cypress  trees,  one  of  which  is  45  feet  in  circumfercuce  and  200  feet  high. 


224      IXTEENATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

-wooden  fence,  and  later  by  a  stone  wall  with  a  moat  around  the  wall. 
About  twenty  years  ago  the  fences  and  walls  were  removed  and  the 
moat  filled  up.  Since  then  the  whole  park  has  been  made  over,  until 
it  is  now  a  most  beautiful  place  of  promenades.  Here  are  held  the 
■fiestas  on  national  holidays. 

One  of  the  most  important,  if  not  the  most  important,  municipal 
work  undertaken  in  the  city  of  Mexico  has  been  the  drainage  of  the 
valley.  This  is  a  very  old  project  and  antedates  the  conquest  in  the 
colonial  period.    AYork  was  at  times  pushed  and  then  abandoned,  and 


LuV  VIGA  CANAL,  FEDERAL  DISTRICT,  MEXICO. 

This  is  an  artificial  and  navigable  waterway,  through  which  the  waters  of  Xochirailco  and 
Chaleo  lakes  discharge  into  the  lower  level  of  Lake  Texeoco.  It  is  the  ronte  over  which  a 
large  trathc  in  vegetable  and  other  products  is  carried  on  between  the  capital  and  the  outly- 
ing conntrv     On  Sunday  afternoons  and  holidavs  the  canal  is  alive  with  pleasure  seekers  and 


ing  I 
tourists 


SO  it  was  during  the  earlier  years  of  the  Republic.  Decisive  action 
dates  from  the  formation  of  the  Drainage  Board  in  1886,  since  which 
the  work  has  been  continuously  and  intelligently  carried  on  to  a  final 
completion  a  few  years  ago.  It  comprehends  an  outlet  from  the  low- 
lying  valley  to  carry  off  the  surplus  water  fall  and  drainage  for  which 
nature  has  not  provided.  The  Valley  of  Mexico  is  a  great  undrained 
bowl  set  round  with  a  rim  of  high  hills  and  mountains.  This  rim  has 
been  tunneled  and  into  the  tunnel  are  carried  the  waters  of  the  Vega 
Canal  which   is  the  final   receptacle  of  the  surplus  water  and  city 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATION   IN   LATIN-AMERICAN   CAPITALS.       225 

drainage.  The  drainage  itself  is  by  means  of  an  underground  system 
similar  to  that  of  most  other  modern  cities.  It  dili'ers  in  this  that  the 
natural  fall  being  insufficient  to  carry  olf  the  matter  or  to  flush  the 
pipes  by  gravity,  an  artificial  method  of  accomplishing  these  ends 
was  necessary.  This  is  done  through  a  supplemental  water  supply 
derived  from  the  springs  surrounding  the  valley,  which  is  gathered 
and  pumped  under  pressure  through  the  drain  pipes,  through  the 
hirger  collecting  channels  into  the  canal,  and  through  the  tunnel  out 
of  the  valley.  The  work  begun  by  the  Board  in  1886  was  continued 
by  a  Commission  appointed  in  1895  and  by  the  Board  of  Directors 
appointed  in  180G. 


A  SCENE  ON  THE  VIGA  CANAL,  FEDERAL  DISTRICT,  MEXICO. 

The  Viga  Canal  is  16  miles  long  and  30  feet  wide,  with  an  average  depth  of  6  feet.  It  has 
continued  in  use  ff>r  more  tluin  two  centuries.  Many  historic  and  picturesque  places  border 
its  banks  and  make  it  one  of  the  most  interesting  spots  in  tlie  valley  i>i  Mexico. 

The  great  cathedral  of  Mexico,  the  most  jDretentious  church  on  the 
continent,  stands  first  in  architectural  interest  among  the  many  fine 
buildings  which  have  given  to  the  capital  the  name  of  "  City  of 
Palaces." 

The  corner  stone  was  laid  in  1573  upon  the  site  occupied  by  the 
great  Aztec  temple  which  was  destroyed  by  Cortez  in  1521.  A  small 
church  was  two  yeai's  later  erected  upon  the  site,  which  in  turn  gave 
place  fifty  years  later  to  the  foundations  of  the  present  cathedral. 
The  walls  were  completed  in  1615,  the  roof  in  1623,  when  the  first  mass 


226      IXTERNATIOXAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

■was  said.  In  IGGT  the  church  was  dedicated,  and  in  ITOI  the  towers 
were  finished,  and  the  buikling  was  finally  completed  about  twenty 
3'ears  later. 

The  cathedral  occupies  an  extent  of  374  feet  by  187  feet.     The 
architecture  is  composite.     The  facade  on  the  side  from  which  the 


(Photo  by  Wiiito,  Mexico  City.) 

MOUNTED  POLICE,  MEXICO  CITY. 

The  mounted  police  force,  which  patrols  the  outlying  districts  and  .«iiliurbs  of  the  capital,  oonsi.st.s 
of  liighly  disciplined  and  well-trained  liorsemen. 

towers  rise  is  divided  by  massive  buttresses  into  three  divisions  rep- 
resenting the  three  (irreek  orders.  The  lower  is  Doric,  next  above, 
a  somewhat  exaggerated  Ionic,  and  the  upper  part  Corinthian.  The 
material  is  a  gray  stone  relieved  by  statues,  friezes,  bases,  and  capi- 
tals of  white  marble,  which  gives  an   agreeable   color  eflfect.     The 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATION   IN   LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.       227 

towers  are  201  feet  in  height.  Two  massive  buttresses  joined  to- 
gether but  hidden  by  a  wall  form  the  first  body  of  each  tower,  which 
rises  to  the  height  of  the  side  entrances.  From  thence  the  second 
body  springs,  ornamented  with  columns  and  semicircular  openings. 
The  third  body,  lighter  in  effect  and  angular,  is  encircled  by  a  bal- 
lustrade.  The  two  lower  bodies  are  Doric  and  the  upper  Tonic.  Each 
tower  is  capped  by  a  bell-shaped  dome.  In  the  west  tower  hangs  the 
great  bell,  Saint  Mary  of  Guadelupe,  which  is  IS  feet  high.  Above 
the  whole  rises  the  great  and  imposing  dome  surmounted  by  a  slender 
and  o-raceful  lantern. 


MOORISH  PAVILION,  CITY  OP  MEXICO. 

The  "Pabcllon  Morisco,"  orMcmrish  Buildins,  which  stands  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Alameda, 
faeini;  Avenida  Juarez,  is  constructed  of  iron  and  glass,  and  was  formerly  the  Mexican  Building 
at  the  Centennial  Expcisition  in  Philadelt>hia.  For  twenty-five  years  it  was  the  office  of  the 
National  Lottery,  but  is  now  tised  as  a  cafe. 

The  interior  forms  a  Latin  cross.  Five  naves,  converging  to  the 
center,  represent  various  styles  of  vaulting;  cloistered  and  groined 
in  the  fourteen  chapels,  seven  on  each  side ;  spherical  and  supported 
by  curvilinear  triangles  in  the  processional  naves;  and  semicircular 
with  lanterns  in  the  central  and  cross  naves.  The  three  last  naves 
are  supported  by  twenty  handsome  Doric  half  columns.  The  whole 
interior  is  a  marvel  of  carving  and  gilding. 

The  National  Palace,  occupying  an  entire  square,  fronting  nearly 
TOO  feet  on  the  Plaza  ^layor,  is  the  Capitol  of  the  Eepublic.  It 
contains  the  President's  offices  and  those  of  several  executive  depart- 
ments, and  is  the  meeting  place  of  the  Senate.  The  House  of  Deputies 
occupies  what  was  formerly  the  Yturbide  Theater,  Init  which  has  been 


228      INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

HMiiodeled  for  legislative  purposes.  The  Palace  occupies  the  side  of 
the  House  of  Cortez,  which  was  destroyed  in  lGO-2.  The  present 
building  was  begun  soon  after,  and  has  been  added  to  from  time 
to  time.  The  last  additions  are  quite  recent.  The  outside  is  un- 
interesting, presenting  long  white  walls  which  suggest  no  idea  of 
the  interior  magnificence  of  the  halls  and  salons. 

The  Palace  has  three  entrances  from  the  Plaza  Maj'or.  The  most 
noted  room  is  the  Hall  of  the  Ambassadors,  an  apartment  of  regal 
dimensions  and  adornment.  The  Hall  of  the  Constitution  is  also  a 
magnificent  room.  Over  the  main  gateway  of  the  Palace  hangs  the 
Liberty  Bell  of  Mexico,  rung  by  Hidalgo  to  call  the  people  to  arms  in 
1810. 

The  Kational  Library  was  formerly  the  old  Church  of  St.  xVugustin, 
and  is  one  of  the  fine  buildings  of  the  city.  It  has  gardens  on  each 
side  and  contains  200,000  volumes,  of  which  many  are  very  old  and 
valuable. 

The  National  Museum  is  one  of  the  world's  great  museums.  Its 
collection  of  ancient  Mexican  art  and  other  relics  is  known  to  all 
scholars. 

The  School  of  Fine  Arts  is  a  fine  gallery  of  painting  and  sculpture. 

Among  the  most  noted  churches  are  San  Pablo,  Santa  Vera  Cruz, 
Santa  Maria  Martir,  Santa  Ana,  Santa  Cruz  Acaltan,  San  ^Miguel, 
San  Jose,  Santo  Domingo,  San  Augustin,  San  Diego,  and  Xuestra 
Seiiora  de  la  Concepcion. 

Other  fine  buildings  are  the  Mining  Palace,  the  Post-Office  building, 
Palace  of  Justice,  and  the  ]Mint. 


INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 

JOHN     BARRE^TT.     DIREiCTOR 
FRANCaSCO  J.  YANES.  SECRETARY 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 


LIMA,  PERU 


(Reprint  of  an  article  from  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  May,  1909) 


WASHINGTON.  D.  C 
GOVERNMENT  >RINTING  OFFICE 

1909 


INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 

JOHN     BARREITT.     DIRECTOR 
FRANCISCO  J.  YANES,  SECRETARY 


MUNICIPAL  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 


LIMA,  PERU 


(Reprint  of  an  article  from  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  May,  1 909) 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1909 


IJ&. 


1    m.  J    'i 


KIN 


•I'll  1 1  i"l. 


T 


LIMA. 

HE  Constitution  of  Peru,  in  article  118.  provides  that : 

There  shall  bo  mnnielpalitics  in  such  places  as  may  be  designated  by 
law,  and  the  law  shall  determine  their  functions,  responsibility,  the 
(jualiflcations  of  the  councilors,  and  the  method  of  electing  the  same. 

To  a  greater  extent  than  many  other  Spanish-American  capitals 
Lima  is  under  the  direct  control  of  the  national  government  of  the 
Republic.  There  is  a  mayor  and  a  municipal  council  of  50  members, 
but  their  functions  arc  not  very  well  defined  and  there  has  been  a 
constant  tendency  in  recent  j^ars  to  abridge  the  same. 

The  first  municipal  organization  of  Lima  was  established  on  Jan- 
uary 30.  1535,  by  Pizarro,  and  tlie  first  alcaldes  were  Nicholas  de 
Rivera,  the  elder,  and  Juax  Tello. 

The  city  Avas  called  the  ''  City  of  the  Sovereigns."  and  bore  on  its 
coat  of  arms  the  initials  of  Queex  Juaxa.  and  Kixo  Carlos.  With 
but  little  clumge  in  form  the  government  of  the  city  established  by 
Pizarro  continued  during  all  the  colonial  jieriod,  and  after  inde- 
pendence in  1821.  down  to  1857.  In  this  last  year  was  reorganized 
the  old  C(ihtld(\  or  corporation  of  Lima,  into  the  nnmicipality  of 
Lima. 

Ill  theory  the  nuniicipality  is  the  adinini>tr,itor  (;f  all  counnunal 
aH'air^-.  and  has  in  charge  all  work  of  j)ublic  health  and  hygiene.  The 
water  sui)i)ly,  opening  and  closing  streets,  and  maintainnig  the  same, 
856 


858       INTERNATIONAL    BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

together  \Yitli  the  hiving  of  sidewalks  and  pavements,  are  also  under 
its  jurisdiction.  Street  raihva^^s  and  street  lighting,  parks,  markets, 
public  carriages,  and  livery  stables  are  subject  to  municipal  control. 
The  mayor  and  cit}'  council  of  Lima  are  charged  with  the  ordinary 
duties  and  given  the  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  city  governments  else- 
where, but  in  practice  the  government  of  the  city  is  to  a  large  ext^Mit 
dictated  b}"  the  President  of  the  Republic  and  the  national  legislature. 
The  public  school  system  has  quite  recently  been  entireh"  divorced 
from  municipal  control  in  any  form. 


HEALTH  INSTITUTE,  LIMA,  I'EKU. 

The  public-health  service  is  thoroughly  organized  in  Peru.  Vaccination  is  compulsory  and  gratis. 
The  Government  also  distributes  gratuitously  the  jirineipal  preventive  and  curative  scrums  and 
makes  large  appropriations  in  support  of  this  project. 

A  foreigner  resident  in  Lima,  or  in  any  other  Peruvian  city,  may 
vote  in  municipal  elections  and  may  l)e  chosen  a  member  of  the 
municipal  council,  on  condition  that  he  be  twenty-one  years  of  age 
and  exercise  some  trade  or  profession  or  be  possessed  of  landed  prop- 
erty. This  right  under  the  law  exists  without  having  acquired  natu- 
ralization. Naturalized  foreigners,  who  may  become  such  after  two 
years'  residence,  vote  and  hold  municipal  oflice  without  condition. 

Lima  has  a  poiMilation  of  150,000  inhabitants  and  is  aliout  S  miles 
inland  from  Callao,  the  port  with  which  it  is  connected  by  two  lines 
of  railway. 


860      TXTERXATIOXAL    BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  city  is  in  sliape  a  triangle,  and  for  the  most  part  lies  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  River  Rimac — in  summer  a  considerable  stream,  swift 
and  turbulent,  but  in  Avinter  dAvindling  to  a  comparatively  insig- 
nificant rivulet.     A  smaller  part  of  the  city  lies  on  the  other  side  of 


POST-OFFICE  AND  TELEGRAPH  BUILDING,  LIMA,  PERU. 

NotwitlistiUKliiiK  tlip  KH'sit  iihvsical  obstacles  e iicuntiten'ri,  Peru's  postal  and  teU'snipli  services  have 
reached  a  hi^h  i^tnlo(it'  clhciencv.  The  former  has  been  more  than  sclf-sustaiiiiiifj  for  several  years, 
ami  there  are  ,''.r,ii  iidstotliccs  in  the  Kepublic.  Tlie  telegraph  system  has  a  luileuge  of  3,200,  all  but 
20  per  cent  of  which  is  operated  by  the  Government. 

the  Rimac,     Above  the  city  rises  the  hill  San  Cristobal,  most  ad- 
vanced of  the  bulwarks  of  the  Andes. 

Lima  lies  in  the  dry  zone  of  Peru,  but  due  to  its  ^lightly  elevated 
situation  and  the  Pacific  winds  visitors  do  not  find  its  temperature 


OLD  TORRE-TAGLE   HOUSE,   LIMA. 
This  house  was  built  in  tlie  days  of  the  Viceroys. 


862       INTERNATIONAL    BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

oppressive.  From  colonial  times  it  has  been  supplied  with  water 
from  several  large  sjDrings  about  3  or  4  miles  away  from  the  center 
of  the  city  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Soon  after  the  found- 
ing of  the  city  the  Spaniards  built  a  large  reservoir  called  the 
Atarjea,  into  which  the  water  from  these  springs  flows,  from  whence, 
b}^  means  of  conduits  of  lime  and  rubble,  it  was  conveyed  to  the  public 
drinking  fountains  and  private  houses  of  the  city.  The  distributing 
conduits  were  defended  by  very  thick  walls,  and  the  larger  canals 
proceeding  from  the  Atarjea  were  veritable  subterranean  aqueducts. 
In  1855,  the  old  system,  Avhich  had  become  inadequate  for  the  pur- 
poses of  the  city,  was  enlarged. 

The  city  is  divided  into  5  quarters  comprising  10  districts,  again 
divided  into  -IG  barrios. 

Four  of  the  districts  are  merely  outlying  parishes,  so  in  reality 
the  city  proper  is  composed  of  the  following  0  districts:  San  Sebas- 
tian, San  Marcelo,  El  Sagrario,  Los  Huerfanos,  Santa  Ana,  and 
San  Lazaro.  Until  1870,  it  was  surrounded  by  an  adobe  wall,  built  in 
1685  as  a  defense  against  the  Indians. 

The  streets  in  general  cross  at  right  angles  and  are  not  very  broad, 
from  30  to  35  feet  being  the  usual  width.  Formerly  there  was  a 
surface  sewerage  system,  but  this  is  being  done  away  with.  In  the 
new  paving  of  the  city  streets  the  sewer  conduits  are  all  under- 
ground. 

The  center  of  Lima  is  the  Plaza  Mayor,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
squares  in  all  the  South  American  capitals.  Fronting  the  square  on 
the  east  is  the  Cathedral,  the  ground  for  wdiich  was  laid  out  by 
PizARRO  on  the  very  day  on  which  the  site  of  the  cit}^  was  chosen. 
The  construction  of  the  Cathedral  occupied  ninety  years.  The  work 
was  delayed  by  changes  in  plans  made  by  successive  viceroys  and  by 
earthquakes,  but  it  was  finally  finished  and  consecrated  on  October  1, 
1025.  In  1740  the  Cathedral  and  practically  the  whole  city  was 
destroyed  l)y  the  great  eartluiuake  of  that  year.  Twelve  years  after- 
wards the  new  cathedral,  occupying  the  same  spot,  was  completed. 

The  building  is  one  of  the  most  imi)osiug  of  all  the  American 
cathedrals.  It  has  five  aisles,  Avith  nine  arches,  and  its  two  sides 
are  formed  of  ten  chapels,  in  one  of  which  are  deposited  the  remains 
of  the  con(iueror.  Francisco  Piz.mujo.  The  high  altar,  separated  from 
the  remainder  of  the  edifice,  occupies  the  center  of  the  chancel, 
and  is  surrounded  l)y  a  l)eautiful  set  of  stalls  made  of  cedar  and  ma- 
hogany. In  (lie  church  and  in  the  vestry  tliere  are  paintings  of  con- 
siderable merit,  among  these  a  Mikillo. 

Fronting  the  Avest  side  of  the  Plaza  Mayor  is  the  municipal  build- 
ing, and  on  the  north  side  is  Government  House,  once  the  viceroy's 
palace.     This  edifice  preserves  to-day  much  of  its  pi-imitive  appear- 
.  and  » 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.       863 

ance.  It  was  partially  destroyed  by  fire  about  twenty-five  years  ago, 
but  the  restoration  of  the  burned  portions  has  not  materially  changed 
its  old  aspect.  It  is  the  President's  residence,  and  as  such  the  center 
of  political  and  social  affairs  in  the  city. 

Lima  is  a  city  of  churches  and  convents.  By  bull  of  Pope  Paul  III, 
dated  May  14,  1541,  it  was  made  an  episcopal  see,  and  its  first  bishop 
was  Fray  Geronimo  de  Loayza.  Four  years  later  the  see  was  made 
an  archbishopric.  The  old  parishes  of  the  city  correspond  with  the 
present  municipal  districts. 

The  church  and  convent  of  San  Francisco  cost  more  than  $2,000,000 
in  construction.  The  principal  cloister  preserves  almost  intact  its 
ancient  magnificence,  when  the  viceroy's  domain  extended  from 
Panama  to  Patagonia  and  Lima  was  his  capital.  The  Avails  are  deco- 
rated with  beautiful,  glazed  tiles,  and  the  carvings  of  the  ceilings  are 
most  exquisite.  The  churches  of  the  convents  of  Santo  Domingo, 
La  Merced,  and  San  Augustin  are  also  handsome  edifices,  as  is  also 
the  new  Jesuit  church  of  Santo  Toribio.  Another  Jesuit  church,  thai, 
of  San  Pedro,  is  one  of  the  most  ornate  in  the  city.  Besides  these, 
other  notable  churches  are  those  of  San  Jose,  La  Caridad,  San  Carlos, 
Cocharcas,  Copacabana,  Santo  Tomas,  Guadelupe,  Belen,  La  Recoleta, 
El  Sagrado  Corazon,  Santa  Teresa,  and  the  churches  of  the  convents, 
of  Buena  Muerte  and  Los  Descalzos.  Nearly  all  of  these  edifices  were 
built  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  In  archi- 
tecture they  are  of  the  Spanish  Renaissance  school,  mixed  with  Moor- 
ish and  Andalusian  details. 

The  space  formerly  occupied  by  the  old  city  wall,  torn  down  in 
1870,  has  been  utilized  in  building  several  handsome  boulevards; 
those  of  Bolognesi,  Grau  and  other  />(76'6'o.s  form  an  almost  uninter- 
rupted driveway  from  the  river  and  back  again  around  the  city. 
Another  beautiful  driveway  is  the  avenue  leading  to  the  town  of 
Magdalena,  about  3^  miles  away.  This  avenue  is  125  feet  wide, 
shaded  with  four  rows  of  palms.  The  avenue  of  the  Barefooted 
Friars  (Los  Descalzos),  on  the  bank  of  the  river,  is  a  wide  central 
public  walk,  adorned  with  12  large  statues  representing  the  signs  of 
the  zodiac,  the  intermediary  spaces  containing  urns,  marble  benches, 
trees,  and  plants.  The  avenue  is  about  two-thirds  of  a  mile  long 
and  begins  at  the  foot  of  San  Cristobal  Hill.  The  Arco  avenue 
is  also  a  favorite  passageway  of  the  city.  It  extends  along  the  river 
from  the  old  stone  bridge  to  the  modern  Balta  bridge.  The  recently 
constructed  Columbus  avenue  is  about  a  third  of  a  mile  long  and 
about  125  feet  wide.  It  begins  at  the  Exposition  Square  and  ends  at 
Bolognesi  Square.  The  avenue  is  built  on  the  arc  of  a  circle  and 
traverses  the  modern  quarter  of  Lima.  Four  wide  sidewalks  run 
along  its  whole  length,  two  at  the  outside  and  two  at  the  center, 


864       INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

divided  by  a  strip  of  land  adorncMl  with  statues,  plants,  and  orna- 
mental benches. 

There  are  35  public  squares  in  Lima.  Some  of  these  are  small, 
set  with  a  few  trees  or  plants  and  Ijenches;  but  many  are  large  and 
artistically  planned.  Four  of  these  large  squares  are  noticeable.  The 
Plaza  Mayor,  upon  which  fronts  government  house  and  the  cathe- 
dral, has  also  fronting  on  its  south  and  west  sides  two  fine 
arcades,  the  lower  parts  of  which  are  occupied  by  handsome  shops 


SQUAD  OF  I'OLICE,  LIMA,  PERU. 

The  police  force  of  Lima  is  nn  cfiicient  and  well-drilled  body  of  men  recruited  and  organized 
by  the  army  authorities  and  under  the  direction  of  a  chief  having  command  of  the  entire 
force. 

and  the  upper  parts  b}''  the  social  clubs,  for  which  Lima  is  quite 
famous.  The  I*laza  Maj'or  contains  a  handsome  bronze  fountain, 
erected  in  1G50,  which  occupies  the  center  of  the  square,  surrounded 
by  palm  trees.  Inquisition  Square,  three  blocks  away,  has  very  pretty 
flower  lAais  and  three  handsome  fountains.  Fronting  on  this  square 
is  the  building  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  also  that  of  the 
Senate.  Santa  Ana  Square,  somewhat  larger  than  Inquisition  Square, 
fronts  the  palace  of  the  Prefecture  and  the  churches  of  Santa  Ana 


THE   CATHEDRAL,  LIMA,    PERU.       '- 


This  beautiful  edifice  overlooks  the  principal  plaza  of  the  Capital.  It  contains  five  aisles, 
with  nine  arches  or  vaults,  and  along  the  sides  are  ten  chapels,  in  one  of  which  repose 
the  remains  of  Pizarro,  the  Conqueror. 


DEPOSITS  AND  CONSIGNMENTS  BANK,   LIMA,   PERU. 

Till-  Bunk  of  Deposits  and  CoiisJKiiiiu'utx  owes  its  existeiice  to  n  law  i)rovitiiiis  tliat  nil 
jtuliciiil  mid  fiscal  deposits  should  he  couct'iitriited  in  a  single  institution,  and  the  hank's 
capital  of  tlOOOOO  was  subscrihed  hy  the  othef  Lima  hanks.  It  performs  the  functions  of 
a  clearing  house. 


SENATE  CHAMBER,   LIMA,   PERU. 
T1».1Vp.rHou»„<«»n.r,,v,.n,;™.,™....n*;.^ 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS.       865 

and  Las  Descalzas.  Exposition  Square,  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
city,  is  the  largest  of  all  the  squares,  and  covers  an  area  of  about  12 
acres. 

There  are  five  monuments  in  Lima  justly  celebrated  all  through 
South  America.  Of  first  rank  is  the  CoLu:\rBus  monument  in  marble. 
The  statue  crowning-  this  monument  represents  the  great  discoverer 
raising  a  native  woman  from  the  ground.  The  Bolivar  monument  of 
bronze  has  a  marble  pedestal,  on  which  appears  two  bas-reliefs,  one 
the  l)nttle  of  Junin  and  the  other  the  battle  of  Ayacucho.  The  Sec- 
ond of  jMay  monument,  in  commemoration  of  the  defense  made  by  the 
Peruvian  forts  against  the  S^^anish  squadron  in  18GG,  comprises  a 
ver}'  beautiful  and  ornate  column  of  Carrara  marble  about  TO  feet 
in  height,  croAvned  by  a  winged  statue  of  Victory  in  gilded  bronze. 
At  the  base  of  the  column  are  bronze  reliefs  representing  the  prin- 
cipal incidents  of  the  combat.  The  Bolognesi  monument  is  dedicated 
to  the  memory  of  Col.  Francisco  Bolognesi,  who  lost  his  life  on 
June  T,  1880,  in  the  heroic  defense  of  the  Arica  Morro  against  the 
Chilean  forces.  The  monument  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  works 
of  the  Spanish  sculptor  Querol.  The  crowning  statue  represents 
Bolognesi  falling  mortally  wounded  and  clutching  his  country's 
flag.  The  monument  to  San  ISIartin  is  a  very  handsome  work  in 
marble,  with  granite  base  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  the  great  Argen- 
tine general  represented  at  the  moment  of  proclaiming  the  inde- 
pendence of  Peru. 

In  addition  to  these  five,  there  is  also  a  fine  monument  to  Eear- 
Admiral  Miguel  Grau,  who  lost  his  life  on  board  the  Huascar,  Octo- 
ber 8,  1879,  in  the  naval  battle  of  Angamos  against  the  Chilean 
squadron. 

In  most  Latin- American  countries  exist,  as  survivals  from  Spanish 
colonial  times,  benevolent  societies  whose  field  of  charitable  work  is 
as  a  rule  broader  than  that  of  similar  associations  in  other  countries. 
Quite  often  they  perform  work  elsewhere  for  the  most  part  under- 
taken by  state  or  municipal  government.  In  these  countries  they 
are  often  given  a  legal  standing,  and  receive  a  government  mu- 
nicipal support  both  in  law  and  in  revenue.  The  Lima  Benevolent 
Society  is  a  most  important  element  in  the  municipal  government  of 
the  capital.  Its  revenues  amount  to  nearly  a  million  dollars  a  year, 
out  of  which  it  supports  the  Second  of  May  Hospital,  a  fine  and 
modern  hospital  for  men  which  accommodates  1,000  patients:  the 
Santa  Ana  Hospital  for  women,  founded  in  1549  by  the  first  Arch- 
bishop of  Lima,  to  which  is  attached  the  Maternity  Hospital  and 
school  for  midwifery  and  the  Military  Hospital  of  San  Bartolome. 
The  insane  asylum  in  charge  of  the  society  is  in  reality  the  national 
hospital  for  the  insane.  It  supports  two  orphan  asylums,  one  for 
foundlings,  housed  in  a  large  and  handsome  building,  and  the  other 


MUNICIPAL    ORGANIZATION    IN    LATIN-AMERICAN    CAPITALS,       867 


for  orphan  boys  who  are  given  a  good  education  and  taught  some  use- 
ful trade.  The  Institute  Sevilhi,  founded  from  a  legacy  by  Seiior 
Jose  Sevilla,  educates  100  girls  and  teaches  them  occupations  stated 
to  their  capacity.  The  apprenticeship  in  this  institution  is  for  five 
years.  The  society  maintains  a  number  of  almshouses  or  asylums 
for  the  verj^  poor  and  the  incuraldy  sick.  It  also  conducts  a  savings 
bank  with  a  branch  mortgage  bank. 


TfiT- 


^•^  m  if  .ff    It 


'    ■:  "fv-^ea 


SCHOUL  OF  MEDICINE,  LIMA,  PERU. 

The  Medical  School  is  a  branch  of  the  famed  University  of  San  Marcos  and  students  who  have 
completed  a  two-years'  course  in  natural  science  and  the  prescribed  course  in  mathematics 
and  physics  in  the  University  are  eligible  for  enrollment.  The  institution  has  a  large  and  able 
faculty  of  instructors.  The  curriculum  embraces  a  period  of  six  years  and  confers  the  title  of 
"physician  and  surgeon"  on  those  who  complete  it. 

The  cemeteries  of  Lima  are  administered  by  the  Benevolent 
Society.  The  principal  one  is  the  Cemetery  of  Lima,  noted  for  its 
fine  mausoleums. 

By  far  the  most  interesting  institution  of  Lima  is  the  famous  Uni- 
versity of  San  Marcos,  the  oldest  in  America  and  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated centers  of  Latin  culture.  La  Universidad  Mayor  de  San 
Marcos,  to  give  its  Spanish  title,  was  founded  by  royal  decree  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V  on  May  12,  15.51,  granting  to  the  priors  of  the 
Dominican  order  the  right  to  establish  an  Estudio  General,  after  the 
model  of  the  University  of  Salamanca.     Twenty  years  later  Philip 

80581— Bull.  5—09 9 


868       INTERNATIONAL    BUREAU    OF    THE    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

II  secularized  the  university,  and  its  first  rector,  Dr.  Gaspar  Menses, 
was  cliosen.  The  name  of  the  San  ISfarcos  was  not  assumed  until 
December  31,  1574,  and  it  is  said  that  this  name  was  chosen  by  lot, 
the  seculars  being  unable  otherwise  to  agree  as  to  which  saint's  name 
should  be  given  to  the  institution.  At  present  the  university  has  six 
faculties — law,  medicine,  theology,  mathematics,  philosophy,  letters 
and  political  economy. 


